09 communication english

The 1st Information Communication Revolution: The 1st written communication beganwith pictographs.. Communication is a continuous process.* Types of communication There are three major p

Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity to another

Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents whichshare a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules Communication is commonly defined as "theimparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs".Although there is such a thing as one-way communication, communication can be perceivedbetter as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of thoughts,feelings or ideas (energy) towards a mutually accepted goal or direction (information)

* Overview

Communication are a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and isdiscreeted and imparted by sender to a receiver via a channel/medium The receiver thendecodes the message and gives the sender a feedback Communication requires that allparties have an area of communicative commonality There are auditory means, such asspeech, song, and tone of voice, and there are nonverbal means, such as body language, signlanguage, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, and writing

* Information communication revolutions

As time progress, so does technology Technology has made things much simpler forhumans, including adding new ways for us to communicate Researchers have divided howcommunication works into 3 revolutions

The 1st Information Communication Revolution: The 1st written communication beganwith pictographs These writings can be found on stone, which were too heavy to transfer.During this era, written communication was not mobile

The 2nd Information Communication Revolution: The Gutenberg press was invented.Gutenberg printed the 1st bible The books were able to be transferred for others across theworld to view Written communication is now storable, and portable

The 3rd Information Communication Revolution: Information can now be transferred viawaves, bits, and other electronic signals

Communication is thus a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt tocreate shared understanding This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonaland interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, andevaluating It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur

There are also many common barriers to successful communication, two of which aremessage overload (when a person receives too many messages at the same time), andmessage complexity Communication is a continuous process.

* Types of communication

There are three major parts in human face to face communication which are body language,voice tonality, and words According to the research:

- 55% of impact is determined by body language - postures, gestures, and eye contact,

- 38% by the tone of voice, and

- 7% by the content or the words used in the communication process

Although the exact percentage of influence may differ from variables such as the listenerand the speaker, communication as a whole strives for the same goal and thus, in somecases, can be universal System of signals, such as voice sounds, intonations or pitch,gestures or written symbols which communicate thoughts or feelings If a language is aboutcommunicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures, or written symbols, can animalcommunications be considered as a language? Animals do not have a written form of alanguage, but use a language to communicate with each another In that sense, an animalcommunication can be considered as a separate language

Human spoken and written languages can be described as a system of symbols (sometimesknown as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated Theword "language" is also used to refer to common properties of languages Languagelearning is normal in human childhood Most human languages use patterns of sound orgesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them There arethousands of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even thoughmany shared properties have exceptions

There is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but the linguist Max Weinreich iscredited as saying that "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy" Constructedlanguages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematicalformalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages

* Nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receivingwordless messages Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or

posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing,hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols and infographics, as well as through an aggregate

of the above, such as behavioral communication Nonverbal communication plays a key role

in every person's day to day life, from employment to romantic engagements

Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voicequality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonationand stress Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style,spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons A portmanteau of the English wordsemotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used toconvey emotional content in written or message form

Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signalstravel from person to person by an alternative means These signals can in themselves berepresentative of words, objects or merely be state projections Trials ave shown thathumans can communicate directly in this way without body language, voice tonality orwords

Categories and Features: G W Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broadcategories:

- Physical: This is the personal type of communication It includes facial expressions, tone

of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions

- Aesthetic: This is the type of communication that takes place through creative

expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing

- Signs: This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal

flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens

- Symbolic: This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or

ego-building symbols

Static Features

- Distance: The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbal message.

In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or the intensity

of the exchange

- Orientation: People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-side, or

even back-to-back For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side whilecompetitors frequently face one another

- Posture: Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing These are not the elements

of posture that convey messages Are we slouched or erect ? Are our legs crossed or ourarms folded ? Such postures convey a degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in thecommunication exchange

- Physical Contact Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on the

back all convey messages They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of)attraction

Dynamic Features

- Facial Expressions: A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey

information Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitoredconstantly by the recipient There is evidence that the meaning of these expressions may besimilar across cultures

- Gestures: One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand

movement Most people use hand movements regularly when talking While some gestures(e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are individually learnedand idiosyncratic

- Looking: A major feature of social communication is eye contact It can convey emotion,

signal when to talk or finish, or aversion The frequency of contact may suggest eitherinterest or boredom

* Visual communication

Visual communication as the name suggests is communication through visual aid It is theconveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon Primarilyassociated with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphicdesign, illustration, colour and electronic resources It solely relies on vision It is form ofcommunication with visual effect It explores the idea that a visual message with text has agreater power to inform, educate or persuade a person It is communication by presentinginformation through visual form

The evaluation of a good visual design is based on measuring comprehension by theaudience, not on aesthetic or artistic preference There are no universally agreed-upon

principles of beauty and ugliness There exists a variety of ways to present informationvisually, like gestures, body languages, video and TV Here, focus is on the presentation oftext, pictures, diagrams, photos, et cetera, integrated on a computer display The term visualpresentation is used to refer to the actual presentation of information Recent research in thefield has focused on web design and graphically oriented usability Graphic designers usemethods of visual communication in their professional practice.

* Other types of communication

Other more specific types of communication are for example: mass communication, facilitatedcommunication, graphic communication, nonviolent communication, oral communication, sciencecommunication, strategic communication, superluminal communication, technicalcommunication

* Oral Communication

The first step in planning an oral presentation involves acknowledging two fundamentaldifferences between oral and written communication One essential goal of oralcommunication is to make personal contact with the audience, and to help connect them tothe content Reading a written report aloud is not usually an effective strategy for engagingwith the audience The needs/preferences of the audience play an even larger role in oralpresentations than in writing The content of presentations should be prepared with this goal

in mind Second, oral presentations are fleeting (or time-sensitive) If readers get lost or stoppaying attention for a few minutes, they can always flip back a few pages Listeners, on theother hand, usually can’t interrupt the speaker and ask that s/he start again and go back a

few minutes Once words are uttered, they vanish.Presenters can account for the fleeting nature oforal presentations by making sure that thepresentation is well organized and by makingstructure

explicit inthe talk, sothe

audiencecanalways knows where they’ve been and where

they’re going

Communication modelling

Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Content (what type ofthings are communicated), source/emisor/sender/encoder (by whom), form (in which form),channel (through which medium), destination/receiver/target/decoder (to whom), and thepurpose or pragmatic aspect Between parties, communication includes acts that conferknowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions These acts maytake many forms, in one of the various manners of communication The form depends onthe abilities of the group communicating Together, communication content and form makemessages that are sent towards a destination The target can be oneself, another person orbeing, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).

Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by threelevels of semiotic rules:

- Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),

- Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and

- Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent) Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share acommon set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules This commonly held rules in somesense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries orself-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition ofcommunicative competences within social interactions

In a simple model, information or content (e.g a message in natural language) is sent insome form (as spoken language) from an emisor/sender/encoder to a destination/ receiver/decoder In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally Aparticular instance of communication is called a speech act The sender's personal filters andthe receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions,cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents In thepresence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), receptionand decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desiredeffect One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes ofencoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something thatfunctions as a code book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if notidentical Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhererepresented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties

Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuousprocess, rather than a discrete exchange of information Canadian media scholar HaroldInnis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which onethey choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society(Wark, McKenzie 1997) His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking atthe ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and

papyrus Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding' it made possible the transmission of

written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns

and colonial administration The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the

construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation togeneration, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society(Wark, McKenzie 1997)

The Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has pioneered anew branch of agricultural communication called Creative Extension

* Non-human living organisms communication

Communication in many of its facets is not limited to humans, or even to primates Everyinformation exchange between living organisms - i.e transmission of signals involving aliving sender and receiver - can be considered a form of communication Thus, there is thebroad field of animal communication, which encompasses most of the issues in ethology Also very primitive animals such as corals are competent to communicate On a more basiclevel, there is cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical communication betweenprimitive organisms like bacteria, and within the plant and fungal kingdoms All of thesecommunication processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinctcoordinations

Animal communication is any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on thecurrent or future behavior of another animal Of course, human communication can besubsumed as a highly developed form of animal communication The study of animal

communication, called zoosemiotics' (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of

human communication) has played an important part in the development of ethology,sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition This is quite evident as humans are able tocommunicate with animals, especially dolphins and other animals used in circuses.However, these animals have to learn a special means of communication Animalcommunication, and indeed the understanding of the animal world in general, is a rapidlygrowing field, and even in the 21st century so far, many prior understandings related to

diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture andlearning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, have beenrevolutionized.

Plants and fungi

Among plants, communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e within plant cellsand between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plantsand non-plant organisms, especially in the rootzone Plant roots communicate in parallelwith rhizobia bacteria, with fungi and with insects in the soil This parallel sign-mediatedinteractions which are governed by syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules are possiblebecause of the decentralized "nervous system" of plants The original meaning of the word

"neuron" in Greek is "vegetable fiber" and as recent research shows, most of theintraorganismic plant communication processes are neuronal-like Plants also communicatevia volatiles in the case of herbivory attack behavior to warn neighboring plants In parallelthey produce other volatiles which attract parasites which attack these herbivores In Stresssituations plants can overwrite the genetic code they inherited from their parents and revert

to that of their grand- or great-grandparents

Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their own growth and development such asthe formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies Additionally fungi communicate with sameand related species as well as with nonfungal organisms in a great variety of symbioticinteractions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants and insects The usedsemiochemicals are of biotic origin and they trigger the fungal organism to react in aspecific manner, in difference while to even the same chemical molecules are not being apart of biotic messages doesn’t trigger to react the fungal organism It means, fungalorganisms are competent to identify the difference of the same molecules being part ofbiotic messages or lack of these features So far five different primary signalling moleculesare known that serve to coordinate very different behavioral patterns such as filamentation,mating, growth, pathogenicity Behavioral coordination and the production of suchsubstances can only be achieved through interpretation processes: self or non-self, abioticindicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-related species, or even “noise”, i.e.,similar molecules without biotic content

* Communication as academic discipline

Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called "communicology," relates toall the ways we communicate, so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge Thecommunication discipline includes both verbal and nonverbal messages A body of

scholarship all about communication is presented and explained in textbooks, electronicpublications, and academic journals In the journals, researchers report the results of studiesthat are the basis for an ever-expanding understanding of how we all communicate.

Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many differentways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines Several, if not all, fields of studydedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it

is very important to be sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about.Definitions of communication range widely, some recognizing that animals cancommunicate with each other as well as human beings, and some are more narrow, onlyincluding human beings within the parameters of human symbolic interaction

* Mass communication

Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of the various means

by which individuals and entities relay information through mass media to large segments ofthe population at the same time It is usually understood to relate to newspaper andmagazine publishing, radio, television and film, as these are used both for disseminatingnews and for advertising

Field of study

Tuba Nacar - Mass communication research includes media institutions and processes such

as diffusion of information, and media effects such as persuasion or manipulation of publicopinion In the United States, for instance, several university journalism departmentsevolved into schools or colleges of mass communication or "journalism and masscommunication" In addition to studying practical skills of journalism, public relations oradvertising, they offer programs on "mass communication" or "mass communicationresearch." The latter is often the title given to doctoral studies in such schools, whether thefocus of the student's research is journalism practice, history, law or media effects.Departmental structures within such colleges may separate research and instruction inprofessional or technical aspects of mass communication

With the increased role of the Internet in delivering news and information, masscommunication studies and media organizations tend to focus on the convergence ofpublishing, broadcasting and digital communication

The academic mass communication discipline historically differs from media studies andcommunication studies programs with roots in departments of theatre, film or speech, andwith more interest in "qualitative," interpretive theory, critical or cultural approaches to

communication study In contrast, many mass communication programs historically leantoward empirical analysis and quantitative research - from statistical content analysis ofmedia messages to survey research, public opinion polling, and experimental research.Interest in "New Media" and "Computer Mediated Communication" is growing much fasterthan educational institutions can assimilate it So far, traditional classes and degreeprograms have not been able to accommodate new shifts of the paradigm in communicationtechnologies Although national standards for the study of interactive media have beenpresent in the U.K since the mid-nineties, course work in these areas tends to varysignificantly from university to university.

Graduates of Mass Communication programs work in a variety of fields in traditional newsmedia and publishing, advertising, public relations and research institutes

Such programs are accredited by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism andMass Communication The Association for Education in Journalism and MassCommunication is the major membership organization for academics in the field, offeringregional and national conferences and refereed publications The InternationalCommunication Association and National Communication Association (formerly the SpeechCommunication Association) include divisions and publications that overlap with those ofAEJMC, but AEJMC historically has stronger ties to the mass communication professions

in the United States

The terms 'Mass' and 'Communication'

The term 'mass' denotes great volume, range or extent (of people or production) andreception of messages The important point about 'mass' is not that a given number ofindividuals receives the products, but rather that the products are available in principle to aplurality of recipients

The term 'mass' suggests that the recipients of media products constitute a vast sea ofpassive, undifferentiated individuals This is an image associated with some earlier critiques

of 'mass culture' and Mass society which generally assumed that the development of masscommunication has had a largely negative impact on modern social life, creating a kind ofbland and homogeneous culture which entertains individuals without challenging them.However, with the advancement in Media Technology, people are no longer receivinggratification without questioning the grounds on which it is based Instead, people areengaging themselves more with media products such as computers, cell phones and Internet.These have gradually became vital tools for communications in society today

The aspect of 'communication' refers to the giving and taking of meaning, the transmissionand reception of messages The word 'communication' is really equated with 'transmission',

as viewed by the sender, rather than in the fuller meaning, which includes the notions ofresponse, sharing and interaction Messages are produced by one set of individuals andtransmitted to others who are typically situated in settings that are spatially and temporallyremote from the original context of production Therefore, the term 'communication' in thiscontext masks the social and industrial nature of the media, promoting a tendency to think

of them as interpersonal communication Furthermore, it is known that recipients today dohave some capacity to intervene in and contribute to the course and content of thecommunicative process They are being both active and creative towards the messages thatthey are conveyed of With the complement of the cyberspace supported by the Internet, notonly that recipients are participants in a structured process of symbolic transmission,constraints such as time and space are reordered and eliminated

'Mass communication' can be seen as institutionalized production and generalized diffusion

of symbolic goods via the fixation and transmission of information or symbolic content It isknown that the systems of information codification has shifted from analog to digital Thishas indeed advanced the communication between individuals With the existence ofInfrared, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, cell phones are no longer solely a tool for audiotransmission We can transfer photos, music documents or even games and email at any timeand anywhere The development of media technology has indeed advanced the transmissionrate and stability of information exchange

Characteristics of Mass Communication

Five characteristics of mass communication have been identified by Cambridge University'sJohn Thompson Firstly, it "comprises both technical and institutional methods ofproduction and distribution" This is evident throughout the history of the media, from print

to the Internet, each suitable for commercial utility

Secondly, it involves the "commodification of symbolic forms", as the production ofmaterials relies on its ability to manufacture and sell large quantities of the work Just asradio stations rely on its time sold to advertisements, newspapers rely for the same reasons

on its space

Mass communication's third characteristic is the "separate contexts between the productionand reception of information", while the fourth is in its "reach to those 'far removed' in timeand space, in comparison to the producers"

Mass communication, which involves "information distribution" This is a "one to many"form of communication, whereby products are mass produced and disseminated to a greatquantity of audiences

* Facilitated communication

Facilitated communication (FC) is a process by which a facilitator supports the hand or

arm of a communicatively-impaired individual while using a keyboard or other devices withthe aim of helping the individual to develop pointing skills and to communicate Someneurologists and psychologists believe there is a high incidence of dyspraxia, or difficultywith planning and/or executing voluntary movement, among such individuals, and that this

is alleviated by a facilitator's manual support Proponents of FC suggest that some peoplewith autism and moderate and profound mental retardation may have "undisclosed literacy",

or the capacity for other symbolic communication, consistent with higher intellectualfunctioning than has been presumed

The procedure is controversial, since a majority of peer reviewed scientific studies concludethat the typed language output attributed to the clients is directed or systematicallydetermined by the therapists who provide facilitated assistance Some peer-reviewedscientific studies have indicated instances of valid FC, and some FC users have reportedlygone on to type independently

Facilitated communication gained further exposure when Nobel laureate Arthur Schawlowused it with his autistic son in the early 1980s and felt that it was helpful His experienceand its effects on the disability community are described on the Stanford University website:They became champions of the technique and were largely responsible for introducing it tothe United States, where it remains controversial

In 1989 Douglas Biklen, a sociologist and professor of special education at SyracuseUniversity, investigated Rosemary Crossley's work in Australia She was then Director ofDEAL (Deal Communication Centre), Australia's first federally-funded centre foraugmentative communication Biklen helped popularize the method in the USA and createdthe Facilitated Communication Institute at Syracuse University

After starting to use the method in Syracuse, Biklen reported startling results in whichstudents with severe autism were said to be producing entire paragraphs of clarity andintellect This produced an explosion of popularity; the method spread across the UnitedStates - especially due to its seeming success with people with autism Facilitatedcommunication was strongly embraced by many parents of children with disabilities, whohoped that their children were capable of more than had been thought (Most of theforegoing discussion is referenced in Jacobson et al., 1995)

Nevertheless, serious questions regarding FC soon began to surface For example, someautistic FC users appeared not to be looking at the keyboard while typing (which is contrary

to training standards for FC) Still others used vocabulary that was apparently beyond theiryears and/or education, many producing poetry of varying complexity A concern arosewhen some of the communications accused the parents of children with autism of severesexual and/or physical abuse Not all such allegations were proven true However, somesexual abuse allegations made via FC have been found to be valid In late 1993, a Frontline(PBS) documentary highlighting these concerns was televised; FC proponents respondedwith criticisms of negative bias

Around the same time, controlled studies were done on the method, most of which reportedthat it was the facilitator who was unconsciously producing the communication By the late1990s, FC had been discredited in the eyes of most scientists and professional organizations,with some calling it pseudoscientific FC retained acceptance in some treatment centers inNorth America, Europe and Australia

Current position statements of certain professional and/or advocacy organizations do notsupport the use of Facilitated Communication due to their objections that it lacks scientificvalidity or reliability These organizations include the American Speech-Language-HearingAssociation, Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI), American Academy

of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and the American Association on Mental Retardation.ABAI calls FC a "discredited technique" and warns that "its use is unwarranted andunethical

The Association for Science in Autism Treatment reviewed the research and positionstatements and concluded that the messages typed on the communication device werecontrolled by the facilitator, not the individual with autism, and FC did not improve theirlanguage skills Therefore, FC was reported to be an "inappropriate intervention" forindividuals with autism spectrum disorders.

TASH (2000) stated: "The question of authorship can become particularly controversialwhen the subject of what has been communicated concerns sensitive issues (TASH)encourages rigorous and ongoing training for people who decide to become facilitators;encourages careful, reflective use of facilitated communication; encourages facilitators towork in collaboration with individuals with severe disabilities to find ways of monitoringauthorship when using facilitation."

The Autism National Committee (AutCom) in 2008 issued a position paper in favor of FC,stating: "Autcom criticizes attempts to dismiss FC on the basis of flawed studies that arepoorly designed and/or whose results are incorrectly extrapolated to the entire population of

FC users In particular, we reject over-generalized claims that allege or imply that merelybecause FC is not valid for some people under some circumstances, FC is not valid for anyperson under any circumstances." Autcom also acknowledges that facilitator influence isreal, and argues that while every effort should be made to avoid it, it is possible for bothfacilitator influence and genuine, FC-user-authored communication to occur in a givenconversation

FC proponents argue that in most of the negative studies, the laboratory setting was itselfthe confounding variable: i.e., communication is inherently very difficult for autistic people,

so they can't necessarily be expected to replicate their successes under unfamiliar or evenhostile conditions (e.g., those in which continuance of access to FC was contingent uponpassing or failing the test) However, not all negative findings were obtained in clinical

settings only; some tests were smoothly embedded in familiar surroundings and dailyactivities in which participants sometimes did not even know they were tested In their 1997

book, Contested Words Contested Science, Biklen and Cardinal (and others) attempt to shed

light on why some controlled studies support FC while others do not

Critics of FC question why people who can give speeches in public and go to college cannotanswer a series of simple questions under controlled conditions Critics also argue thatpositive results are typically obtained using "qualitative research methods" in whichstandard experimental controls for bias and subjectivity are weak or non-existent.Proponents argue that FC users have indeed passed controlled tests, often under duress, and

as a condition for having access to basic human rights such as educational services and evenfreedom from institutionalization (e.g., McDonald, 1993; Crossley and McDonald, 1984;and Dwyer, 1996)

Harvard University psychologist Daniel Wegner has argued that facilitated communication

is a striking example of the ideomotor effect, the well-known phenomenon wherebyindividuals' expectations exert unconscious influence over their motor actions Even FCusers and proponents do acknowledge the possibility of facilitators at times "guiding" users,consciously or unconsciously Other theorists (Donnellan and Leary, 1995) argue that autism

is in significant part characterized by dyspraxia (a movement disorder), and that there exists

a synchronistic "dance" to communication in all mammalian social interaction whichaccounts for the mixed results in validation studies

Still, the most significant concern with FC was, and remains, that of authorship: thequestion of who is really doing the typing Numerous controlled studies haveunambiguously established that facilitator influence does occur FC users and proponentsacknowledge this phenomenon; Sue Rubin, an FC user initially diagnosed as mentallyretarded but who now attends college and types without physical support (see below), hasdescribed her own experience with facilitator influence FC proponents point out that the

fact that cueing occurs under certain conditions with certain FC users does not necessarily mean that it always occurs with all FC users A few controlled studies since 1995 reported

instances of genuine authorship by FC users These studies, and the emergence ofindependent typing in some FC users, demonstrates in the opinion of proponents that at least

in some cases FC is valid but that given the experimental evidence, it is impossible to sayjust how rare or how common such cases are

Stephen von Tetzchner, the author of another leading textbook on Augmentative andAlternative Communication has done theoretical research about facilitated communication

In his opinion "The existing evidence clearly demonstrates that facilitating techniques

usually led to automatic writing, displaying the thoughts and the attitudes of thefacilitators."

Stephen N Calculator (1999) says: "Whereas the use of FC proliferated in the United Statesand elsewhere following initial optimistic reports by Biklen (1990, 1993), Crossley (1992,1994), and others, this fervor has not been matched by efforts to validate the approach or itstheoretical bases Investigators applying qualitative methods have had their outcomes ofsuccess for FC challenged by others in the scientific community who question theappropriateness of such methods in studying FC use Meanwhile, experimental investigatorshave focused primarily on questioning and disproving the efficacy of this method Caught

in the scientific impasse are individuals with severe communication impairments who may

or may not benefit from this approach They and their families continue to be bombardedwith contradictory information, philosophies, and recommendations regarding this method."Mark Mostert (2001) says: "Previous reviews of Facilitated Communication (FC) studieshave clearly established that proponents' claims are largely unsubstantiated and that using

FC as an intervention for communicatively impaired or noncommunicative individuals isnot recommended."

In March 2007, Scott Lilienfeld included facilitated communication on a list of treatments

that have the potential to cause harm in clients, published in the APS journal Perspectives

on Psychological Science

Independent Typing

The phrase "independent typing" is defined by supporters of FC as "typing without physicalsupport", i.e., without being touched by another person Skeptics of FC do not agree thatthis definition of independence suffices because of the possibility of influence by thefacilitator For example, Sue Rubin, an FC user featured in the autobiographical

documentary Autism Is A World, reportedly types without anyone touching her; however,

she reports that she requires a facilitator to hold the keyboard and offer other assistance

A number of other people who began communicating with FC have reportedly gone on to beindependent typists (i.e., without physical support), and in some cases read aloud the words

typed (Biklen et al., 2005) An example of near-independent typing is shown in Douglas Biklen's documentary of artist Larry Bissonnette, My Classic Life as an Artist: A Portrait of Larry Bissonnette, produced at Syracuse University Critics complain that these cases have

not been objectively and independently verified; such verification is absent in peer-reviewedstudies However, a few individuals have in fact been cited as independent typists inindependently-reviewed publications Examples include Jamie Burke (Broderick and Kasa-

Hendrickson, 2001), and Lucy Blackman, author of the autobiography Lucy's Story

FC and are now able to type either independently or with minimal, hand-on-shouldersupport There can be no doubt that, for them, FC 'worked,' in that it opened the door tocommunication for the first time We include FC here because of Sharisa Kochmeister,Lucy Blackman, Larry Bissonnette, and others who now communicate fluently andindependently, thanks to FC For them, the controversy has ended."

* Graphic communication

Graphic communication as the name suggests is communication through graphics andgraphical aids It is the process of creating, producing, and distributing materialincorporating words and images to convey data, concepts, and emotions

The field of graphic communications encompasses all phases of the graphiccommunications processes from origination of the idea (design, layout, and typography)through reproduction, finishing and distribution of two- or three-dimensional products orelectronic transmissions

Overview

Graphical communication involves using monkeys and hippotamusses visual material torelate ideas, such as drawings, photographs, slides, transparencies and sketches Thedrawings of little children, and a rough map skeched to show the way could be consideredgraphical communication Any medium that uses a graphics to aid in conveying a message,instruction, or an idea is involved in graphical communication One of the most widely usedforms of graphical communication is the drawing

History

The earliest graphics known to anthropologists studying prehistoric periods are cavepaintings and markings on boulders, bone, ivory, and antlers, which were created during theUpper Paleolithic period from 40,000–10,000 B.C or earlier Many of these were found torecord astronomical, seasonal, and chronological details

Some of the earliest graphics and drawings known to the modern world, from almost 6,000years ago, are that of engraved stone tablets and ceramic cylinder seals, marking thebeginning of the historic periods and the keeping of records for accounting and inventorypurposes Records from Egypt predate these and papyrus was used by the Egyptians as amaterial on which to plan the building of pyramids; they also used slabs of limestone andwood From 600–250 BC, the Greeks played a major role in geometry They used graphics

to represent their mathematical theories such as the Circle Theorem and the Pythagoreantheorem

Graphic communication topics

Graphics

Graphics are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen,paper, or stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain Examples are photographs,drawings, Line Art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs,maps, engineering drawings, or other images Graphics often combine text, illustration, andcolor Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement oftypography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site, or book without any other

element Clarity or effective communication may be theobjective, association with other cultural elements may besought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style

Graphics can be functional or artistic The latter can be arecorded version, such as a photograph, or an interpretation by ascientist to highlight essential features, or an artist, in whichcase the distinction with imaginary graphics may becomeblurred

A type of communication design

commissioning body, which can be either to build a brand, move sales, or for humanitarianpurposes Its process involves strategic business thinking, utilizing market research,creativity, and problem-solving.

Graphic design

The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines whichfocus on visual communication and presentation Various methods are used to create andcombine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas andmessages A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques toproduce the final result Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) bywhich the communication is created and the products (designs) which are generated

Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging andweb design For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork,organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece.Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when usingpre-existing materials or diverse elements

Graphical representation

The term representation, according to O'Shaughnessy and Stadler (2005), can carry a range

of meanings and interpretations In literary theory representation is commonly defined inthree ways

- To look like or resemble

- To stand in for something or someone

- To present a second time to re-present

Representation, acoording to Mitchell (1995), began with early literary theory in the ideas

of Plato and Aristotle, and has evolved into a significant component of language, Saussurianand communication studies Aristotle discusses representation in three ways:

- The object: The symbol being represented

- Manner: The way the symbol is represented

- Means: The material that is used to represent it

The means of literary representation is language The means of graphical representation are

graphics Graphical representation of data is one of the most commonly used modes ofpresentation

Graphic communication education

Graphic communication is an optional subject its main purpose is to introduce students tomaking architectural drawings - both manual and electronically In addition to teachingDesktop publishing (DTP) and manual publishing

The Graphic communication education can be pitched at many different levels:

Standard Grade Graphic Communication

The Standard Grade Graphic Communication course consists of three elements;

- Knowledge and Interpretation

- Drawing Ability

- Illustration and Presentation

The Knowledge and Interpretation element and the Drawing Ability elements are externallyassessed in the Final Exam

The Knowledge and Interpretation element is a theory section which contains many topicsincluding; Building Drawings, Circuit Diagrams, Flowcharts, Safety Symbols and PublicNotices, Computer Aided Graphics (CAG), Colour Theory and Reading and InterpretingComplex Drawings

The Drawing Ability element is a practical drawing section which also contains many topicsunder two main areas - Orthographic Drawing and Pictorial Drawing Orthographic