VIET LUAN - TIENG ANH 12

Thesis Statement for Essay The main task of the thesis statement of any essay is to show the reader the author’s position on the discussed topic.. In the thesis statement the author make

Topic: How to Write a Good Essay

Hi Cortnie and thanks for stopping by ClassBrain.com!

What a good question! Even after graduating with a degree in English and writing hundreds of papers I still rely on one single thing to help me write the best possible essay I can an outline See, the problem with most essays is that the content is disorganized You may have great ideas and facts that you want to write about, but somewhere during the writing process you start mixing them up Suddenly your perfect paper sounds all wrong and you want

to scream! I've found that the best papers I've ever written (meaning my A papers) have all started with a good, solid outline Once you have an outline down, your paper writes itself Your thoughts are organized and the teacher can understand your main point (which is your thesis) and how you supported that point A focused paper is the key

to writing a good essay Here's the format for the outline I usually follow:

I Topic / Title

II Introduction of Essay

A Write a few sentences that lead into the main point of your essay

B End the paragraph with your thesis statement (3 main points you are going to support)

1 First point in thesis

2 Second point in thesis

3 Third point in thesis

III Body of Essay

A Topic One - First Point in Thesis

1 Support your point with either quotations or solid evidence

2 Have at least five sentences

B Topic Two - Second Point in Thesis

1 Support your point with either quotations or solid evidence

2 Have at least five sentences

C Topic Three - Third Point in Thesis

1 Support your point with either quotations or solid evidence

2 Have at least five sentences

IV Conclusion

A Write a few sentences summarizing your essay

B Restate your thesis and how you proved your point

Once you fill in the blanks to this outline with your topic and information, the rest is easy! Make sure to check your spelling and punctuation, and then you're good to go!

Thesis Statement for Essay

The main task of the thesis statement of any essay is to show the reader the author’s position on the discussed topic It is the argument of the highest priority for the essay due to the fact that it is the thesis statement that is to

be proven throughout the paper In the thesis statement the author makes his own point in the context of the essay topic and delivers it to the reader by means of a logical chain It is usually presented in one single sentence

Do You Need A+ Essay ?

Order a Custom Essay $9.95 :) Writing a Thesis Statement for Essay

• Part one deals with stating the topic

• Part two deals with the point of the essay

How to Write a Good Thesis Statement

In order to create a strong thesis statement it is necessary to keep in mind its specific features:

• A good thesis statement is always an affirmation

• It does not make an announcement or ask a question but asserts a definite point of view

• It should always reveal a plan of development in its contents; reveal what concrete arguments will be

analyzed in the paper

• The thesis statement needs to correspond to the length of the paper If it is very long and the paper is limited to three pages it is impossible to prove it and to persuade the reader that the author has a point

A short thesis statement -> short essay;

A substantial thesis statement ->long essay

• It can be neither too narrow nor too broad

• A thesis statement does not present the author’s point as a subjective position but as an argument to

prove

The thesis statement itself gives the direction and the jumping-off point for the essay That is the reason it is so

important to make it right as the professionalism of the future essay absolutely depends on it

Sample thesis statement

Being a successful psychologist (Part 1) requires a lot of knowledge and tolerance (Part 2)

See other sample thesis statements A vast collection of sample essays contents examples of thesis statement for

essay of all types

How to Write an Introduction to Essay

The main purpose of the introduction is to give the reader a clear idea of the essay’s focal point It must get the reader’s attention as it is the part when he decides if the essay is worth reading till the end or not

The introduction should be written according to the following scheme:

Order a Custom Essay $9.95 :) Introduction to Essay Writing

General information of the topic must be presented in verifiable data

The best way to attract the attention of the reader in the introductory part of any essay is to use special

literature passages

 The goal of these passages is to make the reader pay attention to the introduction and the

whole essay by means of introducing a fact that is absolutely new to him/her

 This fact has to reveals the point of the author explicitly and vividly

 An appropriate anecdote on the topic can make a good job in getting the attention of the reader This is a story that will support the author’s main argument but to make it

effective it has to be highly relevant to the topic of the essay

 A suitable dialogue technique can also be used in the introduction Two or three speakers

are used to clarify the author’s point to the reader

• The transition to the thesis statement is accomplished by dint of several sentences describing the

topic of the essay in the general character and gradually narrowing to the thesis statement

• Thesis statement finished the introduction paragraph and proved the reader with a crystal clear

understanding of the author’s main argument on the topic of the essay

This structure of the essay introduction gives the writer the ability to gradually initiate the reader into the topic

analysis and conclude with a strong thesis statement revealing the very essence of the essay

You can view example of introduction of essay and sample essay introduction of our free example essays

and samples collection

How to Write Body ParagraphsEvery body paragraph must be written according one general structure:

1 Each body part starts with its main idea presented in a form of an essay sentence This main idea/argument must be accurately performed to make it more appealing to the audience

2 Different established facts or points supporting the main idea of the essay The supporting points should not be positioned one after another, but general discussion of the point should be included in-between

3 Each body paragraph should have a concluding sentence in order to make connection to the next paragraph This link is a must-have element as this is what makes the essay logically structured

Writing Essay Body Paragraphs

In order to make each body paragraph truly convincing it is necessary to:

1 Stay focused on one idea/argument only in each body paragraph

2 Keep the thesis statement in mind because each of the body paragraphs supports a point from this

thesis statement

3 Make the topic sentence of each body paragraph as clear as it is possible without generalizations

4 Prove the presented in the body paragraphs points through mentioning detailed and convincing

examples

The body paragraphs are the core of each essay and therefore demand special attention and profound knowledge

on the matter from the side of the writer

What Is the Conclusion Of An Essay

The conclusion is written in one paragraph and its main purpose is to sum up the arguments of the essay, which the author revealed in the topic sentences of the body paragraphs It summarizes the evidence in support for the thesis statement of the essay and if proved restates this statement It is a final glance at the presented facts,

which lead to a certain conclusion on the essay matter

The conclusion does not have a set structure and can be written according to the peculiarities of the essay but

must always have the mentioned above argument summary analysis

Do You Need A+ Essay ?

Order a Custom Essay $9.95 :) Writing An Essay Conclusion

To make a good conclusion it is necessary to:

1 Review the main points of the essay (the topic statements)

2 Summarize them in favor for the thesis statement

3 Describe the writer’s subjective position on the topic

4 End the conclusion with a strong affirmation that will be beyond any question

Does the Conclusion Summarize the Essay

The writer may consider implementation of emotional factors in order to make a memorable impression about the

essay

This may include:

1 Emphasizing the importance of the topic

2 The ending lines may have an unexpected direction leading the reader to nonstandard thoughts)

3 A strong appeal for the reader’s actions

4 A provocation to thinking made by a quote or an anecdote

It is vital to remember:

• Any conclusion should never repeat the assertions presented in the essay word-for-word

• If the writer wants to make the conclusion really successful it must be short but very clear

• This is the last part of the essay and it makes the final impression on the reader

• A good conclusion is always creative and logically sound

Sample Essay Conclusion

A vast collection of sample essays contents examples of essay writing conclusion of all types

Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for Exploratory Papers

Many paper assignments call for you to establish a position and defend that position with an effective argument However, some assignments are not argumentative, but rather, they are exploratory Exploratory essays ask

questions and gather information that may answer these questions However, the main point of the exploratory or inquiry essay is not to find definite answers The main point is to conduct inquiry into a topic, gather information, and share that information with readers

Introductions for Exploratory Essays

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions:

1 What is this?

2 Why am I reading it?

3 What do you want me to do?

You should answer these questions in an exploratory essay by doing the following:

1. Set the context – provide general information about the main idea, explaining the situation so the reader can

make sense of the topic and the questions you will ask

2. State why the main idea is important – tell the reader why s/he should care and keep reading Your goal is to

create a compelling, clear, and educational essay people will want to read and act upon

3. State your research question – compose a question or two that clearly communicate what you want to

discover and why you are interested in the topic An overview of the types of sources you explored might follow your research question

If your inquiry paper is long, you may want to forecast how you explored your topic by outlining the structure of your paper, the sources you considered, and the information you found in these sources Your forecast could read something like this:

In order to explore my topic and try to answer my research question, I began with news sources I then conducted research in scholarly sources, such as peer-reviewed journals Lastly, I conducted an interview with a primary source All these sources gave me a better understanding of my topic, and even though I was not able to fully answer my research questions, I learned a lot and narrowed my subject for the next paper assignment, the problem-solution report

For this OWL resource, the example exploratory process investigates a local problem to gather more information so that eventually a solution may be suggested

Identify a problem facing your University (institution, students, faculty, staff) or the local area and conduct

exploratory research to find out as much as you can on the following:

• Causes of the problem and other contributing factors

• People/institutions involved in the situation: decision makers and stakeholders

• Possible solutions to the problem

You do not have to argue for a solution to the problem at this point The point of the exploratory essay is to ask an

inquiry question and find out as much as you can to try to answer your question Then write about your inquiry and findings

Organizing an Exploratory Essay

Exploratory essays are very different from argumentative essays In fact, an exploratory essay is likely different from any other essay you’ve written Instead of writing to convince an audience of the validity of a thesis, you will

be writing to find out about a problem and perhaps to form some preliminary conclusions about how it might be solved

But there is another aspect the exploratory genre that is equally important An exploratory essay is, in essence, a retrospective of your writing and thinking process as you work through a problem It describes when, how, and why you completed certain types of research This kind of writing is about how you work through problems that require writing and research You will have to be introspective and think about your thinking process in order for your essay to turn out well

Very roughly, then, your exploratory essay may follow this sort of structure:

2 Important information you found in the source regarding your problem

3 Why the information is important and dependable in relation to the problem

4 Some personal introspection on how the source helped you, allowed you to think differently about the problem, or even fell short of your expectations and led you in a new direction in your research, which forms a transition into your next source

Conclusion

The conclusion should restate the problem you explored, outline some of its possible causes, review the institutions and people involved, and highlight some possible solutions If you still have any questions about the problem (and it’s ok to have some), you will discuss them here Talk about why you think you still have questions regarding the problem you explored, where you might look to answer these questions, and what other forms of research you would have to do

Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper

The following sections outline the generally accepted structure for an academic argument paper Keep in mind that

these are guidelines and that your structure needs to be flexible enough to meet the requirements of your purpose

and audience

You may also use the following Purdue OWL resources to help you with your argument paper:

• Creating a Thesis Statement

• Establishing Arguments

• Organizing Your Argument

• Organizing Your Argument Slide Presentation

• Logic in Argumentative Writing

• Paragraphs and Paragraphing

• Transitions and Transitional Devices

Introduction

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions:

1 What is this?

2 Why am I reading it?

3 What do you want me to do?

You should answer these questions by doing the following:

1. Set the context – provide general information about the main idea, explaining the situation so the reader can

make sense of the topic and the claims you make and support

2. State why the main idea is important – tell the reader why s/he should care and keep reading Your goal is to

create a compelling, clear, and convincing essay people will want to read and act upon

3. State your thesis/claim – compose a sentence or two stating the position you will support with logos (sound

reasoning: induction, deduction), pathos (balanced emotional appeal), and ethos (author credibility)

For exploratory essays, your primary research question would replace your thesis statement so the audience

understands why you began your inquiry An overview of the types of sources you explored might follow your research question

If your argument paper is long, you may want to forecast how you will support your thesis by outlining the

structure of your paper, the sources you will consider, and the opposition to your position Your forecast could read something like this:

First, I will define key terms for my argument, and then I will provide some background of the situation Next I will outline the important positions of the argument and explain why I support one of these positions Lastly, I will consider opposing positions and discuss why these positions are outdated I will conclude with some ideas for taking action and possible directions for future research

This is a very general example, but by adding some details on your specific topic, this forecast will effectively outline the structure of your paper so your readers can more easily follow your ideas

Thesis Checklist

Your thesis is more than a general statement about your main idea It needs to establish a clear position you will support with balanced proofs (logos, pathos, ethos) Use the checklist below to help you create a thesis

This section is adapted from Writing with a Thesis: A Rhetoric Reader by David Skwire and Sarah Skwire:

Make sure you avoid the following when creating your thesis:

• A thesis is not a title: Homes and schools (title) vs Parents ought to participate more in the education of their children (good thesis)

• A thesis is not an announcement of the subject: My subject is the incompetence of the Supreme Court vs The Supreme Court made a mistake when it ruled in favor of George W Bush in the 2000 election

• A thesis is not a statement of absolute fact: Jane Austen is the author of Pride and Prejudice

• A thesis is not the whole essay: A thesis is your main idea/claim/refutation/problem-solution expressed in a single sentence or a combination of sentences

• Please note that according to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Sixth Edition, "A thesis

statement is a single sentence that formulates both your topic and your point of view" (Gibaldi 56)

However, if your paper is more complex and requires a thesis statement, your thesis may require a

combination of sentences

Make sure you follow these guidelines when creating your thesis:

• A good thesis is unified: Detective stories are not a high form of literature, but people have always been fascinated by them, and many fine writers have experimented with them (floppy) vs Detective stories appeal to the basic human desire for thrills (concise)

• A good thesis is specific: James Joyce’s Ulysses is very good vs James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious

• Try to be as specific as possible (without providing too much detail) when creating your thesis: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious vs James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious by utilizing the findings of Freudian psychology and introducing the techniques of literary stream-of-consciousness

Quick Checklist:

_ The thesis/claim follows the guidelines outlined above

_ The thesis/claim matches the requirements and goals of the assignment

_ The thesis/claim is clear and easily recognizable

_ The thesis/claim seems supportable by good reasoning/data, emotional appeal

Body Paragraphs

Body Paragraphs: Moving from General to Specific Information

Your paper should be organized in a manner that moves from general to specific information Every time you begin

a new subject, think of an inverted pyramid - the broadest range of information sits at the top, and as the paragraph

or paper progresses, the author becomes more and more focused on the argument ending with specific, detailed evidence supporting a claim Lastly, the author explains how and why the information she has just provided

connects to and supports her thesis (a brief wrap up or warrant)

Image Caption: Moving from General to Specific Information

The four elements of a good paragraph (TTEB)

A good paragraph should contain at least the following four elements: Transition, Topic sentence, specific

Evidence and analysis, and a Brief wrap-up sentence (also known as a warrant) – TTEB!

1. A Transition sentence leading in from a previous paragraph to assure smooth reading This acts as a hand

off from one idea to the next

2. A Topic sentence that tells the reader what you will be discussing in the paragraph

3. Specific Evidence and analysis that supports one of your claims and that provides a deeper level of detail

than your topic sentence

4. A Brief wrap-up sentence that tells the reader how and why this information supports the paper’s thesis

The brief wrap-up is also known as the warrant The warrant is important to your argument because it connects your reasoning and support to your thesis, and it shows that the information in the paragraph is related to your thesis and helps defend it

Supporting evidence (induction and deduction)

Induction

Induction is the type of reasoning that moves from specific facts to a general conclusion When you use induction

in your paper, you will state your thesis (which is actually the conclusion you have come to after looking at all the facts) and then support your thesis with the facts The following is an example of induction taken from Dorothy U

Seyler’s Understanding Argument:

Facts:

There is the dead body of Smith Smith was shot in his bedroom between the hours of 11:00 p.m and 2:00 a.m., according to the coroner Smith was shot with a 32 caliber pistol The pistol left in the bedroom contains Jones’s fingerprints Jones was seen, by a neighbor, entering the Smith home at around 11:00 p.m the night of Smith’s death A coworker heard Smith and Jones arguing in Smith’s office the morning of the day Smith died

Conclusion: Jones killed Smith.

Here, then, is the example in bullet form:

• Conclusion: Jones killed Smith

• Support: Smith was shot by Jones’ gun, Jones was seen entering the scene of the crime, Jones and Smith argued earlier in the day Smith died

• Assumption: The facts are representative, not isolated incidents, and thus reveal a trend, justifying the conclusion drawn

Deduction

When you use deduction in an argument, you begin with general premises and move to a specific conclusion There

is a precise pattern you must use when you reason deductively This pattern is called syllogistic reasoning (the syllogism) Syllogistic reasoning (deduction) is organized in three steps:

1 Major premise: All men are mortal

2 Minor premise: Socrates is a man

3 Conclusion: Socrates is mortal

Lincoln

1 Major premise: People who perform with courage and clear purpose in a crisis are great leaders

2 Minor premise: Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a clear purpose in a crisis

3 Conclusion: Lincoln was a great leader

So in order for deduction to work in the example involving Socrates, you must agree that 1) all men are mortal (they all die); and 2) Socrates is a man If you disagree with either of these premises, the conclusion is invalid The example using Socrates isn’t so difficult to validate But when you move into more murky water (when you use terms such as courage, clear purpose, and great), the connections get tenuous

For example, some historians might argue that Lincoln didn’t really shine until a few years into the Civil War, after many Union losses to Southern leaders such as Robert E Lee

The following is a more clear example of deduction gone awry:

1 Major premise: All dogs make good pets

2 Minor premise: Doogle is a dog

3 Conclusion: Doogle will make a good pet

If you don’t agree that all dogs make good pets, then the conclusion that Doogle will make a good pet is invalid

Enthymemes

When a premise in a syllogism is missing, the syllogism becomes an enthymeme Enthymemes can be very

effective in argument, but they can also be unethical and lead to invalid conclusions Authors often use

enthymemes to persuade audiences The following is an example of an enthymeme:

If you have a plasma TV, you are not poor

The first part of the enthymeme (If you have a plasma TV) is the stated premise The second part of the statement (you are not poor) is the conclusion So the unstated premise is “Only rich people have plasma TVs.” The

enthymeme above leads us to an invalid conclusion (people who own plasma TVs are not poor) because there are plenty of people who own plasma TVs who are poor Let’s look at this enthymeme in a syllogistic structure:

• Major premise: People who own plasma TVs are rich (unstated above)

• Minor premise: You own a plasma TV

• Conclusion: You are not poor

To help you understand how induction and deduction can work together to form a solid argument, you may want to look at the American Declaration of Independence The first section of the Declaration contains a series of

syllogisms, while the middle section is an inductive list of examples The final section brings the first and second sections together in a compelling conclusion

Rebuttal Sections

In order to present a fair and convincing message, you may need to anticipate, research, and outline some of the common positions (arguments) that dispute your thesis If the situation (purpose) calls for you to do this, you will present and then refute these other positions in the rebuttal section of your essay

It is important to consider other positions because in most cases, your primary audience will be fence-sitters Fence-sitters are people who have not decided which side of the argument to support

People who are on your side of the argument will not need a lot of information to align with your position People who are completely against your argument - perhaps for ethical or religious reasons - will probably never align with your position no matter how much information you provide Therefore, the audience you should consider most important are those people who haven't decided which side of the argument they will support - the fence-sitters

In many cases, these fence-sitters have not decided which side to align with because they see value in both

positions Therefore, to not consider opposing positions to your own in a fair manner may alienate fence-sitters when they see that you are not addressing their concerns or discussion opposing positions at all

Organizing your rebuttal section

Following the TTEB method outlined in the Body Paragraph section, forecast all the information that will follow in the rebuttal section and then move point by point through the other positions addressing each one as you go The

outline below, adapted from Seyler's Understanding Argument, is an example of a rebuttal section from a thesis

essay

When you rebut or refute an opposing position, use the following three-part organization:

The opponent’s argument – Usually, you should not assume that your reader has read or remembered the argument

you are refuting Thus at the beginning of your paragraph, you need to state, accurately and fairly, the main points

of the argument you will refute

Your position – Next, make clear the nature of your disagreement with the argument or position you are refuting

Your position might assert, for example, that a writer has not proved his assertion because he has provided

evidence that is outdated, or that the argument is filled with fallacies

Your refutation – The specifics of your counterargument will depend upon the nature of your disagreement If you

challenge the writer’s evidence, then you must present the more recent evidence If you challenge assumptions, then you must explain why they do not hold up If your position is that the piece is filled with fallacies, then you must present and explain each fallacy

Conclusions

Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper After moving from general to specific

information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion should begin pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of your argument Conclusions may also call for action or overview future possible research The following outline may help you conclude your paper:

In a general way,

• restate your topic and why it is important,

• restate your thesis/claim,

• address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position,

• call for action or overview future research possibilities

Remember that once you accomplish these tasks, unless otherwise directed by your instructor, you are finished Done Complete Don't try to bring in new points or end with a whiz bang(!) conclusion or try to solve world hunger in the final sentence of your conclusion Simplicity is best for a clear, convincing message

The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to follow for argument papers:

1 Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction)

2 Tell them (body)

3 Tell them what you told them (conclusion)

Creating a Thesis Statement

This resource was written by Erin Karper.

Last full revision by Elyssa Tardiff.

Last edited by Allen Brizee on September 10th 2008 at 9:58AM

Summary: This resource provides tips for creating a thesis statement and examples of different types of thesis

statements

Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements

Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement

1.Determine what kind of paper you are writing:

• An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts, evaluates the issue or idea,

and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the audience

• An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience

• An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with specific evidence The

claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an

interpretation The goal of the argumentative paper is to convince the audience that the claim is true based

on the evidence provided

If you are writing a text which does not fall under these three categories (ex a narrative), a thesis statement

somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader

2 Your thesis statement should be specific—it should cover only what you will discuss in your paper and should

be supported with specific evidence

3 The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper

4 Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement to reflect exactly what you have discussed in the paper

Thesis Statement Examples

Example of an analytical thesis statement:

An analysis of the college admission process reveals one challenge facing counselors: accepting students with high test scores or students with strong extracurricular backgrounds

The paper that follows should:

• explain the analysis of the college admission process

• explain the challenge facing admissions counselors

Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement:

The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending class, and socializing with peers

The paper that follows should:

• explain how students spend their time studying, attending class, and socializing with peers

Example of an argumentative thesis statement:

High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community service projects before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global awareness

The paper that follows should:

• present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that students should pursue community projects before entering college

Developing Strong Thesis Statements

The Thesis statement or main claim must be debatable

An argumentative or persuasive piece of writing must begin with a debatable thesis or claim In other words, the thesis must be something that people could reasonably have differing opinions on If your thesis is something that

is generally agreed upon or accepted as fact then there is no reason to try to persuade people

Example of a non-debatable thesis statement:

Pollution is bad for the environment.

This thesis statement is not debatable First, the word pollution means that something is bad or negative in some way Further, all studies agree that pollution is a problem, they simply disagree on the impact it will have or the scope of the problem No one could reasonably argue that pollution is good

Example of a debatable thesis statement:

At least twenty-five percent of the federal budget should be spent on limiting pollution

This is an example of a debatable thesis because reasonable people could disagree with it Some people might think that this is how we should spend the nation's money Others might feel that we should be spending more money on education Still others could argue that corporations, not the government, should be paying to limit pollution

Another example of a debatable thesis statement:

America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars

In this example there is also room for disagreement between rational individuals Some citizens might think

focusing on recycling programs rather than private automobiles is the most effective strategy

The thesis needs to be narrow

Although the scope of your paper might seem overwhelming at the start, generally the narrower the thesis the more effective your argument will be Your thesis or claim must be supported by evidence The broader your claim is, the more evidence you will need to convince readers that your position is right

Example of a thesis that is too broad:

Drug use is detrimental to society

There are several reasons this statement is too broad to argue First, what is included in the category "drugs"? Is the author talking about illegal drug use, recreational drug use (which might include alcohol and cigarettes), or all uses

of medication in general? Second, in what ways are drugs detrimental? Is drug use causing deaths (and is the author equating deaths from overdoses and deaths from drug related violence)? Is drug use changing the moral climate or causing the economy to decline? Finally, what does the author mean by "society"? Is the author referring only to America or to the global population? Does the author make any distinction between the effects on children and adults? There are just too many questions that the claim leaves open The author could not cover all of the topics listed above, yet the generality of the claim leaves all of these possibilities open to debate

Example of a narrow or focused thesis:

Illegal drug use is detrimental because it encourages gang violence

In this example the the topic of drugs has been narrowed down to illegal drugs and the detriment has been

narrowed down to gang violence This is a much more manageable topic

We could narrow each debatable thesis from the previous examples in the following way:

Narrowed debatable thesis 1:

At least twenty-five percent of the federal budget should be spent on helping upgrade business to clean

technologies, researching renewable energy sources, and planting more trees in order to control or eliminate

pollution

This thesis narrows the scope of the argument by specifying not just the amount of money used but also how the money could actually help to control pollution

Narrowed debatable thesis 2:

America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars because it would allow most citizens to contribute to national efforts and care about the outcome

This thesis narrows the scope of the argument by specifying not just what the focus of a national anti-pollution campaign should be but also why this is the appropriate focus

Qualifiers such as "typically," "generally," "usually," or "on average" also help to limit the scope of your claim by allowing for the almost inevitable exception to the rule

Types of Claims

Claims typically fall into one of four categories Thinking about how you want to approach your topic, in other words what type of claim you want to make, is one way to focus your thesis on one particular aspect of you broader topic

Claims of fact or definition: These claims argue about what the definition of something is or whether something

is a settled fact Example:

What some people refer to as global warming is actually nothing more than normal, long-term cycles of climate change

Claims of cause and effect: These claims argue that one person, thing, or event caused another thing or event to

occur Example:

The popularity of SUV's in America has caused pollution to increase

Claims about value: These are claims made about what something is worth, whether we value it or not, how we

would rate or categorize something Example:

Global warming is the most pressing challenge facing the world today

Claims about solutions or policies: These are claims that argue for or against a certain solution or policy approach

to a problem Example:

Instead of drilling for oil in Alaska we should be focusing on ways to reduce oil consumption, such as researching renewable energy sources

Which type of claim is right for your argument? Which type of thesis or claim you use for your argument will

depend on your position and knowledge on the topic, your audience, and the context of your paper You might want to think about where you imagine your audience to be on this topic and pinpoint where you think the biggest difference in viewpoints might be Even if you start with one type of claim you probably will be using several within the paper Regardless of the type of claim you choose to utilize it is key to identify the controversy or debate you are addressing and to define your position early on in the paper!

Using Research and Evidence

What type of evidence should I use?

There are two types of evidence:

First hand research is research you have conducted yourself such as interviews, experiments, surveys, or personal experience and anecdotes

Second hand research is research you are getting from various texts that has been supplied and compiled by others such as books, periodicals, and websites

Regardless of what type of sources you use, they must be credible In other words, your sources must be reliable, accurate, and trustworthy

How Do I know if a source is credible?

You can ask the following questions to determine if a source is credible:

Who is the author? Credible sources are written by authors respected their fields of study Responsible, credible

authors will cite their sources so that you can check the accuracy of and support for what they've written (This is also a good way to find more sources for your own research.)

How recent is the source? The choice to seek recent sources depends on your topic While sources on the

American Civil War may be decades old and still contain accurate information, sources on information

technologies, or other areas that are experiencing rapid changes, need to be much more current

What is the author's purpose? When deciding which sources to use, you should take the purpose or point of view

of the author into consideration Is the author presenting a neutral, objective view of a topic? Or is the author advocating one specific view of a topic? Who is funding the research or writing of this source? A source written

from a particular point of view may be credible; however, you need to be careful that your sources don't limit your

coverage of a topic to one side of a debate

What type of sources does your audience value? If you are writing for a professional or academic audience, they

may value peer-reviewed journals as the most credible sources of information If you are writing for a group of

residents in your hometown, they might be more comfortable with mainstream sources, such as Time or Newsweek

A younger audience may be more accepting of information found on the Internet than an older audience might be

Be especially careful when evaluating Internet sources! Never use Web sites where an author cannot be

determined, unless the site is associated with a reputable institution such as a respected university, a credible media outlet, government program or department, or well-known non-governmental organizations Beware of using sites like Wikipedia, which are collaboratively developed by users Because anyone can add or change content, the validity of information on such sites may not meet the standards for academic research

Organizing Your Argument

How can I effectively present my argument?

Use an organizational structure that arranges the argument in a way that will make sense to the reader The

Toulmin Method of logic is a common and easy to use formula for organizing an argument

The basic format for the Toulmin Method is as follows:

Claim: The overall thesis the writer will argue for.

Data: Evidence gathered to support the claim.

Warrant (also referred to as a bridge): Explanation of why or how the data supports the claim, the underlying

assumption that connects your data to your claim

Backing (also referred to as the foundation): Additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to support the

warrant

Counterclaim: A claim that negates or disagrees with the thesis/claim.

Rebuttal: Evidence that negates or disagrees with the counterclaim.

Including a well thought out warrant or bridge is essential to writing a good argumentative essay or paper If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis they may not make a connection between the two or they may draw different conclusions

Don't avoid the opposing side of an argument Instead, include the opposing side as a counterclaim Find out what the other side is saying and respond to it within your own argument This is important so that the audience is not swayed by weak, but unrefuted, arguments Including counterclaims allows you to find common ground with more

of your readers It also makes you look more credible because you appear to be knowledgeable about the entirety of the debate rather than just being biased or uniformed You may want to include several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic

Example:

Claim: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

Data1:Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air polluting activity

Warrant 1:Because cars are the largest source of private, as opposed to industry produced, air pollution switching

to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution

Data 2: Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.

Warrant 2: Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that a decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a

long-term impact on pollution levels

Data 3: Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor

Warrant 3: This combination of technologies means that less pollution is produced According to ineedtoknow.org

"the hybrid engine of the Prius, made by Toyota, produces 90 percent fewer harmful emissions than a comparable gasoline engine."

Counterclaim: Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages a culture of driving even if it cuts down on

pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging use of mass transit systems

Rebuttal: While mass transit is an environmentally sound idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many

rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work; thus hybrid cars are a better solution for much

of the nation's population

Using Rhetorical Strategies for Persuasion

There are three types of rhetorical appeals, or persuasive strategies, used in arguments to support claims and

respond to opposing arguments A good argument will generally use a combination of all three appeals to make its case

Fair trade agreements have raised the quality of life for coffee producers, so fair trade agreements could be used to help other farmers as well

In this example the specific case of fair trade agreements with coffee producers is being used as the starting point for the claim Because these agreements have worked the author concludes that it could work for other farmers as well

Deductive reasoning begins with a generalization and then applies it to a specific case The generalization you start with must have been based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence.Example:

Genetically modified seeds have caused poverty, hunger, and a decline in bio-diversity everywhere they have been introduced, so there is no reason the same thing will not occur when genetically modified corn seeds are introduced

in Mexico

In this example the author starts with a large claim, that genetically modified seeds have been problematic

everywhere, and from this draws the more localized or specific conclusion that Mexico will be affected in the same way

Avoid Logical Fallacies

These are some common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument Also, watch out for these slips in other people's arguments

Slippery slope: This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually through a series of

small steps, through B, C, , X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A and Z So, if we don't want Z to occur

A must not be allowed to occur either Example:

If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment eventually the government will ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers

In this example the author is equating banning Hummers with banning all cars, which is not the same thing.

Hasty Generalization: This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence In other words, you are

rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts Example:

Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course

In this example the author is basing their evaluation of the entire course on only one class, and on the first day which is notoriously boring and full of housekeeping tasks for most courses To make a fair and reasonable evaluation the author must attend several classes, and possibly even examine the textbook, talk to the professor, or talk to others who have previously finished the course in order to have sufficient evidence to base a conclusion on

Post hoc ergo propter hoc: This is a conclusion that assumes that if 'A' occurred after 'B' then 'B' must have

caused 'A.' Example:

I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick

In this example the author assumes that if one event chronologically follows another the first event must have caused the second But the illness could have been caused by the burrito the night before, a flu bug that had been working on the body for days, or a chemical spill across campus There is no reason, without more evidence, to assume the water caused the person to be sick

Genetic Fallacy: A conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of a person, idea, institute, or theory

determine its character, nature, or worth Example:

The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler's army

In this example the author is equating the character of a car with the character of the people who built the car

Begging the Claim: The conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the claim Example:

Filthy and polluting coal should be banned

Arguing that coal pollutes the earth and thus should be banned would be logical But the very conclusion that should be proved, that coal causes enough pollution to warrant banning its use, is already assumed in the claim by referring to it as "filthy and polluting."

Circular Argument: This restates the argument rather than actually proving it Example:

George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively

In this example the conclusion that Bush is a "good communicator" and the evidence used to prove it "he speaks effectively" are basically the same idea Specific evidence such as using everyday language, breaking down complex problems, or illustrating his points with humorous stories would be needed to prove either half of the sentence

Either/or: This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the argument by reducing it to only two sides or choices

Example:

We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth

In this example where two choices are presented as the only options, yet the author ignores a range of choices in between such as developing cleaner technology, car sharing systems for necessities and emergencies, or better community planning to discourage daily driving

Ad hominem: This is an attack on the character of a person rather than their opinions or arguments Example:

Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies

In this example the author doesn't even name particular strategies Green Peace has suggested, much less evaluate those strategies on their merits Instead, the author attacks the characters of the individuals in the group

Ad populum: This is an emotional appeal that speaks to positive (such as patriotism, religion, democracy) or

negative (such as terrorism or fascism) concepts rather than the real issue at hand Example:

If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever vehicle they want

In this example the author equates being a "true American," a concept that people want to be associated with, particularly in a time of war, with allowing people to buy any vehicle they want even though there is no inherent connection between the two

Red Herring: This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments rather

than addressing them Example:

The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families

In this example the author switches the discussion away from the safety of the food and talks instead about an economic issue, the livelihood of those catching fish While one issue may effect the other it does not mean we should ignore possible safety issues because of possible economic consequences to a few individuals

Ethos

Ethos or the ethical appeal is based on the character, credibility, or reliability of the writer.There are many ways to establish good character and credibility as an author:

• Use only credible, reliable sources to build your argument and cite those sources properly

• Respect the reader by stating the opposing position accurately

• Establish common ground with your audience, often this can be done by acknowledging values and beliefs shared by those on both sides of the argument

• If appropriate for the assignment, disclose why you are interested in this topic or what personal experiences you have had with the topic

• Organize your argument in a logical, easy to follow manner You can use the Toulmin method of logic or a simple pattern such as chronological order, most general to most detailed example, earliest to most recent example, etc

• Proofread the argument Too many careless grammar mistakes cast doubt on your character as a writer

Pathos

Pathos or the emotional appeal appeals to an audience's needs, values, and emotional sensibilities

Argument emphasizes reason, but used properly there is often a place for emotion as well Emotional appeals can use sources such as interviews and individual stories to paint a more legitimate and moving picture of reality or illuminate the truth For example, telling the story of a single child who has been abused may make for a more

persuasive argument than simply the number of children abused each year because it would give a human face to the numbers

Only use an emotional appeal if it truly supports the claim you are making, not as a way to distract from the real issues of debate An argument should never use emotion to misrepresent the topic or frighten people

Logic in Argumentative Writing

This handout is designed to help writers develop and use logical arguments in writing Through an introduction in some of the basic terms and operations of logic, the handout helps writers analyze the arguments of others and generate their own arguments However, it is important to remember that logic is only one aspect of a successful argument Non-logical arguments, statements that cannot be logically proven or disproved, are important in argumentative writing, such as appeals to emotions or values Illogical arguments, on the other hand, are false and must be avoided

Logic is a formal system of analysis that helps writers invent, demonstrate, and prove arguments It works by testing propositions against one another to determine their accuracy People often think they are using logic when they avoid emotion or make arguments based on their common sense, such as "Everyone should look out for their own self interests" or "People have the right to be free." However, unemotional or common sense statements are not always equivalent to logical statements To be logical, a proposition must be tested within a logical sequence

The most famous logical sequence, called the syllogism, was developed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle His most famous syllogism is:

Premise 1: All men are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is a man

Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal

In this sequence, premise 2 is tested against premise 1 to reach the logical conclusion Within this system, if both premises are considered valid, there is no other logical conclusion than determining that Socrates is a mortal This guide provides some vocabulary and strategies for determining logical conclusions

Using Logic

Logical Vocabulary

Before using logic to reach conclusions, it is helpful to know some important vocabulary related to logic

Premise: Proposition used as evidence in an argument.

Conclusion: Logical result of the relationship between the premises Conclusions serve as the thesis of the

argument

Argument: The assertion of a conclusion based on logical premises.

Syllogism: The simplest sequence of logical premises and conclusions, devised by Aristotle.

Enthymeme: A shortened syllogism which omits the first premise, allowing the audience to fill it in For example,

"Socrates is mortal because he is a human" is an enthymeme which leaves all the premise "All humans are mortal."

Induction: A process through which the premises provide some basis for the conclusion.

Deduction: A process through which the premises provide conclusive proof for the conclusion

Reaching Logical Conclusions

Reaching logical conclusions depends on the proper analysis of premises The goal of a syllogism is to arrange premises so that only one true conclusion is possible

Example A:

Consider the following premises: