fundamentals of applied acarology

Preface Acarology, the study of mites and ticks, is a subdiscipline of Zoology and is many times considered in the field of Entomology the study of insects.. Mites and ticks directly aff

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Fundamentals

of Applied

Acarology

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Fundamentals of Applied Acarology

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Manjit Singh Dhooria

Fundamentals of Applied Acarology

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Department of Entomology

Punjab Agricultural University

Ludhiana, Punjab, India

ISBN 978-981-10-1592-2 ISBN 978-981-10-1594-6 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1594-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953350

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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors

or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #22-06/08 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

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My Sons:

1 Ramanjot Dhooria: Reena, Sarah and Geet

2 Taranjot Dhooria: Saveena and Mannat

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Preface

Acarology, the study of mites and ticks, is a subdiscipline of Zoology and is many times considered in the field of Entomology (the study of insects) Mites and ticks are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem (both ter-restrial and aquatic) More than 55,000 species of mites and ticks are already described, and the number of undescribed species may reach about 20-fold as mite fauna in most of the world regions are still poorly explored Mites and ticks directly affect humans as pests of different crops, fruit plants, vegetable crops and field crops; as parasites of human beings, veterinary animals, poultry and pets; as pests

of stored grains and other products, mushrooms and cheese; and as parasites of honeybees Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth billions of dollars in terms of reduced crop yields and lowered quality of produce Some spe-cies of mites serve as vectors of various plant diseases Ticks cause losses through blood feeding and by transmitting Lyme disease, babesiosis, Rocky Mountain fever, tularaemia and many other diseases among man and animals House-dust mite aller-gies and tick bite allergies are also common in many parts of the world

Our knowledge of biology, ecology and the importance of mites has largely expanded At the same time, the actual and potential economic importance of these creatures continues to grow worldwide, and their success in colonizing the new regions makes them an ongoing quarantine threat in many parts of the world There

is a great necessity of an up-to-date compilation of basic and applied knowledge on mites and their proper management that is otherwise found scattered in a variety of languages and literature throughout the world

The present book, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, is written keeping in

view nonavailability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place Separate chapters in this book are devoted to the importance of acarol-ogy, historical account, acarine technology, morphology and anatomy of Acari; and feeding, development and reproduction providing knowledge on diapause and water balance The book includes a recent classification of subclass Acari, and illustra-tions are provided for the identification of 107 important families of Acari The role

of mites in breaking down soil organic matter and affecting the quality of water bodies is discussed in detail Molecular developments in relation to mites and ticks are also discussed The role of mites and ticks in quarantines of plants and animals, forensic/criminal investigations and the importance of accidental acarophagy are also discussed in detail Transmission of plant diseases by mite vectors is

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thoroughly discussed Safe usage of pesticides based on their mode of action (IRAC’s groups), development of acaricide resistance and measures to mitigate it are also discussed.

Mite pests of fruit trees, vegetable plants, floricultural plants and field crops; mite problems in greenhouses/polyhouses; mite problems encountered under organic cultivation of plants and their management through minimum usage of pes-ticides are emphasized in different chapters The role of different predaceous mites

in controlling plant pests like thrips, aphids and scale insects is elaborately cussed Biological control of phytophagous mites is discussed in detail

dis-Different animal parasitic mites and ticks are discussed from veterinary and medical point of view

At the end of each chapter, many important references for further reading and electronic references (ER) in the form of YouTube links and other weblinks are given to understand fully how these tiny creatures look like and behave, feed and reproduce, the nature of damage they cause to plants and animals and measures to mitigate them At the end, a glossary of important taxonomic and integrated pest management terms is provided which makes understanding the contents in a more suitable way creating great lust for knowing more and more about these creatures

I am grateful to the late Dr G.P ChannaBasavanna and Dr S.K Gupta, both distinguished acarologists from India, who encouraged me and lent their moral support for writing such a book on applied aspects I also sincerely acknowledge

Dr Uri Gerson of Israel and Dr K Ramaraju of India, eminent acarologists, for their useful suggestions

The knowledge contained in the book may prove very useful for ‘General and Applied Acarology’ course for graduate and postgraduate levels, teachers and researchers in entomology, pest control advisors, professional entomologists, pesti-cide industry managers, policy planners and others having interest in mites and ticks

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About the Book

Acarology, the study of mites and ticks, is a subdiscipline of Zoology and is many times considered in the field of Entomology (the study of insects) Mites and ticks are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem (both ter-restrial and aquatic) including grassland soils More than 55,000 species of mites and ticks are already described, but the number of undescribed species may reach

up to 20-fold as mite fauna in most of the world regions are still poorly explored Mites and ticks directly affect humans as pests of different crops, fruit plants, veg-etable crops and field crops; as parasites of human beings, veterinary animals, poul-try and pets; as pests of stored grains and other products, mushrooms and cheese; and as parasites of honeybees Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth billions of dollars in terms of reduced crop yields and lowered quality of produce Many species of mites serve as vectors of various plant diseases; some species of ticks cause losses through blood feeding and by transmitting Lyme dis-ease, babesiosis, Rocky Mountain fever, tularaemia and many other diseases among man and animals House-dust mite allergies and tick bite allergies are also common

in many parts of the world

The present book, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, is written keeping in

view nonavailability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place Separate chapters in this book are devoted to the importance of acarol-ogy; historical account; acarine technology; morphology and anatomy of Acari; and feeding, development and reproduction providing knowledge on diapause and water balance Molecular developments in relation to mites and ticks are also discussed.The role of mites and ticks in quarantines of plants and animals, forensic/crimi-nal investigations, and the importance of accidental acarophagy are discussed in detail in different chapters Safe usage of pesticides based on their mode of action (IRAC’s groups), development of acaricide resistance and measures to mitigate it are also discussed

Mite pests of fruit trees, vegetable plants, floricultural plants and field crops; mite problems in greenhouses/polyhouses; mite problems encountered under organic cultivation of plants and their management through minimum usage of pes-ticides are emphasized in different chapters The role of different predaceous mites

in controlling plant pests like thrips, aphids and scale insects is elaborately cussed Biological control of phytophagous mites is discussed in detail

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dis-Different animal parasitic mites and ticks are discussed from veterinary and medical point of view Many YouTube and other weblinks explain in an interesting way emphasizing the importance of salient information on these creatures and mea-sures to combat them.

At the end of each chapter, many important references for further reading and electronic references (ER) in the form of YouTube links and other weblinks are given to understand fully how these tiny creatures look like and behave, feed and reproduce, the nature of damage they cause to plants and animals and measures to mitigate them Weblinks will stimulate interest in the readers for more information about different mites and ticks

The knowledge contained in the book may prove as best material for ‘General and Applied Acarology’ course for graduate and postgraduate levels, teachers and researchers in entomology, pest control advisors, professional entomologists, pesti-cide industry managers, policy planners and others having interest in mites and ticks

Ludhiana-141012, Punjab, India

E-mail: msdhooria@yahoo.com

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Contents

1 Acarology and Its Importance 1

Further Reading 470

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About the Author

Dr M.S Dhooria was born in 1946 and did his B.Sc in Agriculture in 1967, and M.Sc in Entomology in 1969 from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab), India In 1980, did Ph D in Entomology from Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi (India) He was awarded Junior Research Fellowship in M.Sc., and Senior Research Fellowship in Ph D studies by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi He has more than 36 years of experience in teaching, research and extension in the field of Entomology He did research work on: biology, ecology, and management of phytophagous mites

Taught ‘General and Applied Acarology’ course at post graduate level for many

years Published more than 125 research publications in different national and nationally reputed journals Contributed some book chapters and a booklet on Citrus Mites as a special publication of ICAR Attended several national and international level workshops on different aspects of insects and mites He is also a life fellow of Entomological Society of India, New Delhi; Indian Society for the Advancement of Insect Science, Ludhiana; and Acarological Society of India (ASI), Bangalore Remained as Vice President of ASI for two terms Friendship Forum of India, New Delhi, awarded him the Certificate of Honour and Gold Medal for his lifetime achievements in Entomology

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M.S Dhooria, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology,

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1594-6_1

Abstract

Acarology is the study of mites and ticks which are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem Mites are most common arthropod ectoparasites of vertebrates including humans They are the largest and diverse group within the arthropod class Arachnida with over 55,000 described species, but the number of undescribed species may reach upto 20-fold as mite fauna in most of the world regions are still poorly explored Mites and ticks are of great interest to human beings in a variety of ways and affect the humans as pests of economic plants including vegetable crops, fruit crops, field and fibre crops, and different ornamental plants They also act as parasites of human beings, cattle, poultry and pets; as pests of stored grains and processed foods; and as parasites

of honeybees Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth lions of dollars in terms of reduced crop yields, lowered quality of product, and poor health of mankind The economic importance of mites and ticks is dis-cussed to create more interest in these creatures

bil-Keywords

Acarology • Mites • Ticks

Acarology is a sub-discipline of Zoology and is sometimes included in the field of Entomology (the study of insects), and Arachnology (the study of spiders and

related organisms) Word acarology is derived from Greek words: akari, means a type of mite; and logos, meaning knowledge So acarology is the study of mites and

ticks–the members of the Subclass Acari

Mites are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem They have successfully colonized both terrestrial and aquatic habitats, and are also very commonly found in the forests and grassland soils, and in temporary accumu-lations of organic debris Mites are most common arthropod ectoparasites of verte-

brates, including humans Follicle mite (Demodex spp.), and scabies mite (Sarcoptes

1

Acarology and Its Importance

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spp.) are present in association with most people throughout the world (Krantz and Walter 2009; Evans 1992).

Mites are in fact the first land arthropods, the oldest known so far Late Devonian However, because of their small size, the Acari are uncommon in fossil records A few are known from the Carboniferous, and more from Tertiary amber from Canada, Mexico and Europe Insects and mites inhabited the earth long before man appeared They inhabited earth 350 million years ago but man got inhabited the earth only one million years ago The first described fossil mite,

Protacarus crani, was found in the Devonian Rhynie Chert of Scotland Other fossil mites have been found afterwards, especially bodies included in amber (Walter and Proctor 1999)

Mites or Acari are the largest and diverse group within the arthropod Class Arachnida (Subphylum Chelicerata, and Phylum Arthropoda) with over 55,000 described species Even this number seems misleading since it is estimated that only 5–10 % of all the mite species have been formally described, but the number of undescribed species may reach upto 20-fold as mite fauna in most of the world regions are still poorly explored Acari are the largest and more diverse group in the class Arachnida In contrast with other arachnid groups such as spiders and scorpi-ons, mites are of smaller size 0.1–30 mm in length Mouthparts of mites and ticks are specialized for piercing tissues and sucking out the contents (Gupta 2012; Hoy

2011)

Mites and ticks are of great interest to human beings in a variety of ways They directly affect the humans as pests of different economic plants including vegetable crops, fruit trees, field and fibre crops, and different ornamental plants (mostly in greenhouses); as parasites of human beings, cattle, poultry and pets; as pests of stored grains and processed food, mushrooms and cured- fish; and as pests of hon-eybees Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth billions of dol-lars in terms of reduced crop yields and lowered quality of the produce (Gerson

et al 2003) The economic importance of mites is briefly discussed here under ferent heads

dif-Plant Feeding Mites About 7000 species of plant feeding mites are known

world-wide, and about half of them belong to the Superfamily Eriophyoidea (gall, bud, rust mites etc.) Remaining half are distributed within the Superfamily Tetranychoidea (spider mites, flat mites, and peacock mites), and the lesser known bulb mites of the family Acaridae

Plant feeding mites play an important role as pests of vegetable crops, fruit trees, ornamental plants (both under field and protected cultivation), fibre crops, forage crops, oilseed crops and timber trees Under many situations, lack of information about the correct identity of mites, and inadequate knowledge regarding their biol-ogy and ecology, have hampered our ability to combat these pests Small size and their cryptic appearance makes them difficult to detect, and thus infestations are many times overlooked Once established in a new area, certain biological charac-teristics allow their rapid escalation to pest status High rate of fecundity, short life

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cycles, a myriad of their dispersal techniques, and adaptability to diverse ecological conditions are the main reasons for their success under different agroecosystems (Hoy 2011) Besides, the great increase in world trade has set the stage for poten-tially devastating situations that may threaten the world’s agroecosystems Plant

feeding mites like two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch, citrus mites

Panonychus ulmi (Koch) and Panonychus citri (McGregor); and flat mite Brevipalpus

phoenicis (Geijskes) are amongst the most serious pests under diverse conditions Some eriophyid mites and spider mites are the vectors of several viral diseases of some economic crops and cause economic losses in their production

Controller of Weeds Weeds compete cultivated plants for water and for nutritive

elements The skeleton weeds gall mite, Aceria chondrilla (Canestrini) feeds cifically on troublesome weed, Chondrilla juncea, and reduce the damage from

spe-weed by controlling their further spread in new areas Some other eriophyid mties have also been reported specifically feeding on certain other weed species resulting

in reduced use of herbicides and pesticides (Ochoa et al 1994)

Soil Mites Soil mites are typical representatives of soil microfauna inhabiting soil

pores and other minute soil spaces They inhabit primarily in upper layers of soil, and together with the collembolans are the important representatives of aerobiotic microfauna In grasslands (meadows, pastures etc.) and forest habitats, their repre-sentation is dominant among different microfauna The soil mites are mainly phy-tophagous, fungivorus and saprophagous forms; besides predaceous and parasitic mites Soil mites have exceptional importance in the circulation of substances in soil and are more resistant to desiccation in contrast to other soil microfauna Soil or oribatid mites are also known as beetle mites, and are especially abundant in humus rich soil Significance of soil mites in processing the organic matter into humus, for the life of the soils as an organic component of ecosystem, in which they help to maintain an equilibrium and increase the fertility of soil Several soil mites may play an important role in transmitting different pathogens to man Chiggers – larvae

of family Trombiculidae, transmit rickettsia responsible for scrub typhus, and are typical microcavernicolous inhabitants of the soil penetrating the deeper soil layers Some oribatid mites are utilized as intermediate hosts by cestodes of sheep and other ruminants, like hares and rabbits (Baker and Wharton 1952; Evans 1992; Krantz and Walter 2009; Walter and Proctor 1999)

Predatory Mites Diverse ecological relationships among mites may be utilized in

biological control of phytophagous mites under different situations such as houses/screenhouses etc Different predaceous mites belonging to family Phytoseiidae are considered as efficient predators of pest mites resulting in com-paratively lesser use of pesticides Commercial insectaries produce these mites for biological control of pest mites on tomato, ornamental plants (including roses) par-ticularly under protected cultivation and under organic cultivation Some tydeid mites have been reported feeding on hyphae of fungus that cause powdery mildew

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green-disease Some of the predatory mites have been reported to control successfully

aphids, thrips, and whiteflies Straw itch mite Pyemotes tritici (Fossat & Montagne), have been used as a biocontrol agent against Anagastra kuhniella.which damages

stored grains and flour (Gerson et al 2003; Gupta 2012; Hoy 2011; Zhang 2003)

Stored Products Mites living originally in small numbers on seeds, plants,

decay-ing vegetation, and in nests of mammals, are gradually introduced to all types of stored products due to mans’ economic activities (food storage) Mites attack either stored unprocessed products (grains, vegetables, fruits, meat, bulbs, hay etc.) or prepared products (flour or flour products, cheese, dried fruits, cured-fish etc.) Stored mites primarily belong to family Acaridae; and infestation of stored products

by mites pose great problems all over the world Besides damaging grains, they affect the quality of grain products Even the stored bulbs and corms of different ornamental plants are badly affected by mites The mites consumed together with infested food cause intestinal and urinary problems in animals (Gerson et al 2003; Hoy 2011)

Acariasis ‘Acariasis’ in animals is caused by a variety of mites The zoonotic

spe-cies include Sarcoptes scabiei (DeGeer) – cause of sarcoptic mange (scabies) in

humans, and more than 100 other species of mammals and marsupials Humans can also be infested by the scabies mites of dogs, pigs, cattle, goats, sheep, hares, buf-falo, camels, and some wild or zoo animals Many members of family Psoroptidae affect only domestic animals and result in conditions known as ‘psoroptic mange’ Several species of chiggers or harvest mites (family Trombiculidae) are parasites of different animals or humans Hundreds of food storage items (including grains and insect cultures) are faced by certain allergic reactions and pruritis caused by differ-

ent mite infestations The bites of Dermanyssus gallina (DeGeer), Liponyssoides

sanguineus Hirst, Ornithonyssus bacoti (Hirst), O sylviarum (Canestrini & Fanzago), and O bursa can be painful or pruritic, and may cause irritation and

localized dermatitis (Krantz and Walter 2009; Walter and Proctor 1999)

Mushrooms and Mites Some mites are important pests of cultivated fungi

espe-cially mushrooms Linopodes spp (family Eupodidae), and Tyrophagus spp ily Acaridae), Tarsonemus spp and Pygmephorus spp occur in large mumbers in

(fam-commercial mushroom houses where they often destroy whole crop of mushrooms particularly when improperly conditioned compost is used and poor sanitary condi-tions are followed

Flavour Enhancer for Cheese For centuries French and German cheese makers

have used mites, Acarus siro and Tyrophagus casei, to refine the taste of cheese

However, it is not properly known regarding the production of typical sour taste, loved by fans resulting from mite infestation Quarantine authorities of USA and other countries, however, do not allow such cheese for import

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House-dust Mites and Allergy Dermatophagoides spp are the primary source of

allergens in house dust These mites are commonly known as house-dust mites, and they produce many proteins that induce allergic responses in sensitive persons House-dust allergy may take the form of respiratory distress or skin irritation Mites typically inhabit beds, chairs, carpets, mattresses and pillows in houses, and their shed skins and faeces provide the bulk of the allergens in house-dust extracts (Colloff 2009)

Beekeeping and Mites Ectoparasitic mites like Varroa destructor Anderson &

Trueman, V jacobsoni Oudemans, and Tropilaelaps clareae Delfinado & Baker; and endoparasitic mite Acarapis woodi (Rennie) which infest trachea, are also very

important natural enemies of honeybees Sometimes these mites cause lot of tations of bee colonies resulting in reduced pollination of crops, and lowered yields

devas-of honey Bee mites are very difficult to control because devas-of toxicity devas-of pesticides to bees and development of resistance to pesticides in parasitic mites (Krantz and Walter 2009)

Crime Solvers The precise date of ones’ death can be determined by taking

sam-ples of the mites that develop on the victim The establishment of these mites follow

a well- defined chronology Certain species of mites invade the human corpse faster than others Therefore, the Acari can be used for the estimation of postmortem inter-

vals Macrocheles spp are abundant in first stage of decomposition while

Tyroglyphidae and oribatid mites which are consumers of dry human skin appear later Moreover, as some Acari have a precise geographical distribution they may serve to provide valuable supporting data to determine the location of the body and the scene of the crime at the time of death Similarly the characteristics of the aca-rines found on the body of drowned people can be useful to determine the time of submersion of a corpse So mites can sometimes provide vital clues about murder and in solving the cause of death

Poultry Pests The poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae (DeGeer), is regarded

as the most important ectoparasite of laying hens in organic or conventional egg production These mites can cause severe anaemia and associated mortality Mite infestations may cause staining of egg shell surface and thus reduce their market value Even low mite infestation can irritate hens to the extent that they refuse to use

the hen house or rest on the perches Serious infestation of poultry mites, D

galli-nae, may result in great reduction in terms of eggs and meat yield Red mites may also act as a vector for numerous pathogens of medical and veterinary importance (Evans 1992; Krantz and Walter 2009)

Medical and Veterinary Importance Ecto-, and endoparasitic mites attack both

vertebrates and invertebrates Most endoparasitic mites live in the respiratory tract

of vertebrates Ectoparasitic mites are the most common arthropod parasites of

ver-tebrates (including human beings) Human follicle mite, Demodex spp are present

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on most people throughout the world Parasitic mites Sarcoptes scabiei (DeGeer)

causes ‘scabies’ in humans and ‘mange’ in wide range of domestic and wild mals throughout the world Mites infest the skin in a variety of mechanisms like mechanical trauma, contact through their secretions, retained mouthparts, or with their living/dead bodies (irritant or allergic contact reactions) Storage mites

mam-Glycyphagus destructor Schrank, play an important role in causing ‘atopic titis’ (atopic eczema) in children (Baker and Wharton 1952)

derma-Ticks derma-Ticks are actually a specialized group of mites, and share many features with

the mites In general they are larger than most mites, ranging from 0.6 mm to 1 cm

in length or even more in diameter when fully engorged with blood All ticks are blood-sucking parasites (ER 2) They are found in most parts of the world but are generally limited to those habitats (wood, tall grass and shrubby vegetation) which are most frequented by their hosts, as the ticks climb onto tops of plants and estab-lish contact with a passing host Ticks are obligate ectoparasites of cattle, poultry

and human beings Dermacentor andersoni Stiles, causes paralysis in cattle; D

variabilis (Say), is of nuisance value to tourists and rural people; D albipictus

(Packard) infests deer and neglected range of horses, and may act as an important

source of nuisance to game animals confined in parks Otobius megnini (Duges) causes ‘toxicosis’ of cattle Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille) commonly parasit-

izes dogs, and is a pest in kennels and homes Direct feeding of ticks on cattle causes blood loss as high as one litre per cattle head in one season A high infesta-tion may cause anaemia in cattle Ticks sucking in clusters may cause additional bleeding from the wounds cut by cluster feeding The damaged skin permits the entry of their infectious germs which may cause local or general afflictions of domestic animals There may be decrease in milk yield from 25 to 40 % in tick-infested cows Ticks also serve as vectors of animal diseases caused by arboviruses, rickettsiae, bacteria, spirochetes, protozoa, parasitic worms etc (Krantz and Walter

2009; Walter and Proctor 1999)

Considering great economic importance of mites and ticks (both Acari) in tion to agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry and human-beings, the informa-tion regarding different aspects of studies on them are found in literature published

rela-in different scattered journals, book chapters, and other reports rela-in different guages and can not be readily used by students or other interested readers So it was thought necessary to present the information in different chapters on different aspects in the form of a book Most important information gathered from different sources are included in this book in a way that it may stimulate readers to do more studies in this area For knowing more about the subject, further reading including salient sources of study are given at the end of each chapter Additionally Electronic Resources (ER) and weblinks are provided for better understanding mites and ticks

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lan-Further Reading

Baker EW, Wharton GW (1952) An introduction to acarology Macmillan, New York, 464 pp Colloff MJ (2009) Dust mites CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, 496 pp

Evans GO (1992) Principles of acarology CAB International, Wallingford, 563 pp

Gerson U, Smiley RL, Ochoa R (2003) Mites(Acari) for pest control Blackwell Scientific, Oxford,

Zhang ZQ (2003) Mites of greenhouses: identification, biology and control Wallingford, CAB International, 235 pp

Electronic References (ER)

1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BPE9-JymTA Arachnids: the different kinds

2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kAQNoEp8P0o&feature=iv&src_vid=_BPE9- JymTA&annotation_id=annotation_2302628687 Ticks up close

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DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1594-6_2

Abstract

Awareness about the mites and ticks dates back to ancient Egypt (1550 BC) and was continuously demonstrated throughout the writings of major Greek scholars; however, the science of acarology originated in the eighteenth-century Europe Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) reported ticks as the foulest and nastiest creatures References to mites and ticks have also been found in the early writings of

Hippocrates and Aristophanes Greek terms Kroton or Kynoraistis for ticks and

A-Kari (without head) had been used by Aristotle in describing about non-ixodid ticks During medieval times, mites were commonly referred to as lice, beesties

or little insects The rediscovery of the term Akari or Acari appears to have occurred about 1650, but the term acarology began to appear regularly in the

literature Carl von Linnaeus used the generic word Acarus in the first edition of the Systema Naturae published in 1738 Historical account of acarology is dis-

cussed into three parts, i.e prior to 1850 AD, between the period 1851 and 1950 and the developments from 1951 till today A brief account of important books published, history of formation of acarological societies at regional and interna-tional levels and important journals published in acarology are discussed Interest

in acarology is rapidly developing because of the role of mites and ticks and their associations on different crops, storages and vectors of diseases and their impact

as parasites/pests on human beings, domestic animals and poultry

Keywords

Acari • Acarina • History • Linnaeus

Awareness of the mites and ticks dates back to ancient Egypt (1550 BC) and was continuously demonstrated throughout the writings of the major Greek scholars; however, the science of acarology originated in the eighteenth-century Europe Historical account has been divided into three parts, i.e prior to 1850 AD, between

1851 and 1950 and the developments from 1951 till today (Prasad 1982)

2

Historical Account of Acarology

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2.1 Developments Prior to 1850 AD

The oldest reports are about a tick in the 1550 BC (Egyptian Ebers Papyrus), rence of ticks in the 850 BC in Ulysses’ dog (Homer) and a record of mites on cheese in the 350 BC (Aristotle) Subsequently after another 500 years, a mite para-

occur-site of locusts (probably Eutrombidium) has been reported in De Animalibis Histori

Libri Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) reported ticks as the foulest and nastiest tures References to mites and ticks have been found in the early writings of Hippocrates and Aristophanes

crea-Greek terms Kroton or Kynoraistis for ticks and A-Kari (without head) had been

used by Aristotle in describing about non-ixodid ticks Another possible derivation

of the word Acari may have been from the Greek word akares, which means small

or short During medieval times, mites were commonly referred to as lice, beesties

or little insects As in Aristotle’s time and until relatively recently, ticks were sidered as an entity separate from mites and were referred to as ticia (old English)

con-or Zecken (in Middle High German) The old English wcon-ord mite, meaning very small, may well have been derived from the ‘widows’ mite – an early Flemish coin

of very small size (Walter and Proctor 1999)

Rediscovery of the term Akari, or Acari, appears to have occurred about 1650, but it was not until the early twentieth century that the term acarology began to appear regularly in the literature (Krantz 1996) Carl von Linnaeus used the generic

word Acarus in the first edition of the Systema Naturae published in 1738 Later, Linnaeus named the type species, Acarus siro, in the tenth edition of Systema

Naturae published in 1758 In this edition, 30 mite species reported all under the

genus Acarus In this way Linnaeus did the ground work for the field of systematic

acarology During the one hundred years that followed Linnaeus, several schemes

of higher classification of mites and ticks were introduced (DeGeer 1778; Leach 1815; Duges 1839) Many newly recognized mites and ticks were reported in this

period Oudemans’ publication Kritish Historisch Overzicht der Acarologie that

appeared in three volumes (1926, 1929 and 1936–1937) included all acarological contributions made before 1850 But some early naturalists after Linnaeus many times mixed up the genera of mites with diverse groups such as crustaceans, the common sea spider, small beetles and harvestmen

William Elford Leach (1790–1836) deserves credit for recognizing mites as an arachnid order Monomerostomata Leach 1815 But 4 years later, Leach (1819) replaced his ordinal name with a class Acari, although the credit for naming the taxon

is given to Christian Ludwig Nitzsch (1782–1837) who introduced essentially the same name a year earlier as Acarina Nitzsch, 1818 By this time the ‘mites’ were now

on their way to bring a definable and recognizable group (Krantz and Walter 2009)

2.2 Progress During 1851–1950 AD

The emergence of acarology as a modern science during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was centred primarily in Europe and North America Michael (1884) placed all Acari in two groups based on the basis of respiratory

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systems: (i) Acari, Atracheata (including Glycyphagus, Histiostoma, Phytoptus,

Demodex and Sarcoptidae), and (ii) Acari, Tracheata (including Prostigmata, Oribatidae, Gamasidae, Ixodidae, Tarsonemidae and Myobiidae) By this time members of mites and ticks were known by the names: Acarina, Acariens, Acaros and Acarida

Grandjean (1882–1975) did an excellent work on mites regarding their ics, morphology, phylogeny and ontogeny Historic contributions during the above period were also made by Kramer (1877), Canestrini (1891), Banks (1904), Reuter (1909), Sig Thor (1929), Vitzthum (1940–1943) and Tragardh (1946) mostly regard-ing description of new taxa and classification of present day Acari Many valuable contributions of the above scientists towards acarine systematics and classification proved instrumental in establishing acarology as a discrete discipline

systemat-After World War II, intensive studies on mite-transmitted diseases such as scrub typhus and tick-borne haemorrhagic fever were reported Following the introduc-tion of several organochlorinated and organophosphate pesticides for the control of different insect and mite pest problems of agricultural and veterinary importance, the impact of these pesticides in disrupting the natural enemies of mites on agricul-tural crops was more thoroughly investigated Several new mites and ticks were found and their damage was investigated in different locations

2.3 Developments Since 1951

The eminent scientists, EW Baker and GW Wharton, investigated thoroughly sity of plant-associated and animal parasitic mites Both of them published jointly a

diver-monumental and very useful book: An Introduction to Acarology in 1952 The above

text included briefly all the most important contributions towards systematics and classification of Acari and provided the base of modern day acarology Many biolo-gists were attracted to this branch of science after the publication of the above text

Baker and coworkers published in 1958 another very useful book: Guide to Families

of Mites The efforts of different scientists led to the development and production of some more books, establishment of acarological societies in different countries and production of various electronic publications and websites, which have put acarol-

ogy on very sound footing In many universities, General and Applied Acarology

course is being taught at both graduate and postgraduate levels, and many shining students are opting this subject for their thesis/dissertation studies To stimulate further interest in the subject of acarology, V Prasad – an eminent acarologist – pub-

lished a book History of Acarology in 1982 which included historical account of

acarological investigations made in 22 different countries The Acarological Society

of America (ASA) honoured EW Baker and GW Wharton for their lifetime

contri-butions in the field of acarology, at a specially organized symposium, Acari: Life

history, and Reproductive Patterns , and considered them as the Fathers of Acarology

(Prasad 1982; Lindquist 1984; Lindquist 2006)

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2.4 OSU Acarology Development Programme

At Duke University (USA), Dr George W Wharton established a section ‘The Institute of Acarology’ in 1951 Then Dr GW Wharton and Dr Edward W Baker together conducted ‘Acarology Summer Programme’ for the young acarologists at Ohio State University, at Columbus (Ohio), in the same year when Dr GW Wharton joined as Chairman of Department of Zoology and Entomology Since then this course is being regularly conducted annually for training interested acarologists in the field of agriculture, medical, veterinary and soil acarology Many present-day acarologists have got training from the above programme and produced useful find-ings which have made the subject of acarology as an important discipline (ER1)

A brief history of acarological developments in Hawaii (USA) and Australia is also reported in literature (ER2 and ER6) An overview of the story of French aca-rologists (ER4), and history of acarology in Egypt (ER5), is also available Trends

of publications made in the last 150 years in different aspects of acarology in ent journals are also reported (ER3) The information pertaining to different acaro-logical societies, journals devoted to acarology and important books published in the field of acarology are given below

1963, and the 14th International Congress of Acarology was held at Kyoto (Japan) in 2014 Details about ICA congresses held and proceedings published thereof are given in Table 2.1

2 Acarological Society of America (ASA)

https://www.facebook.com/AcarologicalSocietyofAmerica/

https://sites.google.com/site/acarologicalsociety/home

ASA meetings are held in coordination with the Entomological Society of America (ESA) The society also publishes a directory of member acarologists, news and meetings ASA also publishes on irregular basis its newsletter (ER2)

3 Acarological Society of India (ASI)

ASI was founded in 1973 The Indian Journal of Acarology, later renamed as

Journal of Acarology ; and Acarology Newsletter published regularly by the

society till 2000 (Vol 16 and 17), but subsequently thereafter published irregularly

4 Systematic and Applied Acarology Society (SAAS)

(http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/acarology/saas/)

SAAS was founded in 1996 and published Systematic and Applied Acarology

Journal SAAS also published Special Publications – a rapid publication for

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Table 2.1 International Congress of Acarology

Congress Held at Period President Proceeding published 1st Fort Collins,

Colorado, USA

2–7 Sept 1963 G W Wharton Proceedings published as:

Proceedings, in a special number of Acrologia Acarologia, 1964–1966 (h.s.):1–439

2nd Sutton, Bonington

England (UK)

19–25 July 1967 T E Hughes Proceedings by

Akademiai Kaido, Budapest, in 1969, 652 pp 3rd Prague (then

Czechoslovakia)

31 Aug.–6 Sept, 1971

B Rosicky Proceedings of the 3rd

International Congress of Acarology 1971, 837 pp 4th Saalfelden,

Michigan (USA)

6–12 Aug 1978 E W Baker Recent advances in

Acarology Vol I 631 pp (ISBN 0-12-592201) & Vol II 569H (ISBN 0-12-592201-9) 6th Edinburgh,

Scotland

5–11 Sept 1982 G O Evans Acarology VI, Vol:

645645 pp (ISBN 1984-085312-603) and, Vol II (ISBN

0-85312-604-6) 7th Bangalore, India 3–9 Aug 1986 G P Channa

Basavanna

Progress in Acarology

1988, Vol I: 523 pp (ISBN 81-204-0346-0), Vol II: 484 pp (ISBN 81-204-0347-9) 8th Ceske Budejovice

(Czechoslovakia)

6–11 Aug 1990 B Rosicky Modern Acarology,

1991 Vol I: 651 pp (ISBN 80-200-0364-9) and Vol II: 779 pp (80-200-0369-9) 9th Columbus, Ohio

(USA)

17–22 July 1994 D E Johnston Proceedings: Acarology

IX 1996, 718 pp 10th Canberra,

Australia

5–10 July 1998 R B Halliday Proceedings: Acarology

Proceeding of the 10th International Congress

1998, 657 pp (IISBN 0-643-06658-6) 11th Merida, Yucatan,

Mexico

8–13 Sept 2002 Tila M Perez Acarology XI:

Proceedings of the International Congress of Acarology, 2007, 726 pp (ISBN

978-970-32-4451-5)

(continued)

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short papers and monographic works – which is now merged with the journal in

2012 It also publishes Acarology Bulletin, a newsletter of the society It also

issues books of special interest to members and maintains an online

acarologi-cal e-reprint library for acarologists around the world Anyone interested in the

study of mites and ticks is welcome to join SAAS.

5 African Acarology Association (AAA)

http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/acarology/saas/Hosted/aaa/index.htm

AAA was founded in 1998 in South Africa It holds symposia in acarology (regarding different topics) regularly after 3 years duration The first sympo-sium was held in 1998, and the fifth symposium was held at Livingstone, Zambia, in 2011 Abstracts of the third, fourth and fifth symposium are avail-able on the website of AAA

6 The Acarological Society of Japan (ASJ)

(http://en.acarology-japan.org/)

ASJ was founded in 1973 and replaced the earlier Japanese Association of Acarology which was established in 1973 ASJ publishes semi-annually a

research journal, Journal of Acarological Society of Japan ASJ also holds

annual meetings and conducts symposiums regularly The 14th International Congress of Acarology (ICA) was held at Kyoto, Japan, in 2014

7 European Association of Acarologists (EURAAC)

(http://euraac.webs.upv.es/)

EURAAC publishes an irregular newsletter and organizes symposia in Europe

at regular intervals (ER4) Proceedings of different symposia have been lished in book form as given in Table 2.2

8 The Egyptian Society of Acarology (ESA)

2010, 566 pp and (ISBN 978-90-481-9836-8 and 12th e-ISBN

978-90-481-9837-5) 13th Recife,

Pernambuco

Aug 2010 G J Demores

and Heather Proctor

Acarology XIII:

Proceedings of the 13th International Congress (2011) ISBN: 978-1- 86977-804-0 (online edition)

14th Kyoto, Japan 14–18 July 2014 H Amano Proceedings 14th

International Congress of Acarology (2016) Flechtmann ( 2011 )

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9 The Acarological Society of Iran (ASI)

(http://www.acarology.ir/)

ASI was founded in 2008 and started publishing semi-annually – Persian

Journal of Acarology – from January 2012

10 Sociedad Latinoamericana de Acarologia (SLA)

(www.slaacarologia.com)

SLA was established for South American acarologists in 1994

11 Societe Internationale Des Acarologues De Langue Francaise (SIALF)

(www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/acarology/saas/hosted/sialf/index.htm)

SIALF aims to promote research in acarology by exchanges of information among French-speaking members to support the growth of acarology The soci-ety also organizes ‘International Courses of Acarology’ regularly

Table 2.2 EURAAC symposiums

Symposium Place held Dates Editors Proceedings published as 1st Graz (Austria) 1988 Schuster, R and

Murphy P W.

The Acari: Reproduction, Development and life-history strategies,

pp 564 Chapman and Hall, London, 1991 2nd Krynica

(Poland)

1992 Kropczynska, D;

Boczek, J; and Tomczyk, A.

The Acari: Physiological and Ecological aspects of Acari-Host relationships,

Pp 698 Dabor Warsaw, 1995

Publishers, Dordrecht 1999

4th Sienna (Italy) 2000 Bernin, F; Nannelli,

5th Berlin

(Germany)

2004 Weigmann G; Alberti, G; Wohltmann, A; and Ragusa, S.

Acarine Biodiversity in the Natural and Human Sphere Pp 765

Phytophaga XIV, 2004 (2005)

6th Montpellier

(France)

2008 Bertrand, M; Kreikter, S.; Mc Coy, K D.;

Migeon, A.; Navajos, M.; M S.; and Vial, L.

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2 Acarologia (ISSN: 0044-586-x (print); 2107-7207 (online))

http://www1.montpellier.inra.fr/CBGP/acarologia/latest.php

Marc Andre and Francois Grandjean founded this journal in 1959 This is the first and longest publishing acarology journal published quarterly and is devoted exclusively to acarology From 2010, the online version is free through open access A paper version is also available but through subscription

4 Acarology Bulletin (ISSN: 1361-8091)

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2.7 Important Books Published

Baker EW, Wharton GW 1952 An introduction to Acarology, MacMillan,

New York, 465 pp

Chillar BS, Gulati R, Bhatnagar P 2007 Agricultural Acarology Daya Publishing

House, Delhi (India), 353 pp

Evans GO, Sheals JG Macfarlane D.1961 Terrestrial Acari of the British Isles,

Vol.1, Adland and Son Barthobnew Press, Durking, England

Evans GO 1992 Principles of Acarology CAB International, Wallingford,

UK.563 pp

Gerson U, Smiley RL 1990 Acarine Biocontrol Agents: An Illustrated Key and

Manual Chapman and Hall, London, 174 pp

Gerson U, Smiley RL, Ochoa R 2003 Mites (Acari) for pest control Blackwell

Science Ltd, Cambridge, 539 pp

Helle W, Sabelis MW 1985 Spider mites: Their Biology, Natural Enemies and

Control World Crop Pests, Vols I A and I B, Elsevier, Amsterdam

Harvey MS 1998 The Australian Water Mites: A Guide to Families and Genera

CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria

Jeppson LR, Keifer HH., Baker EW 1975 Mite pests of economic plants University

of California Press, Berkeley, 614 pp

Krantz GW, Walter DE., eds 2009 A Manual of Acarology Third Edition, Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, Texas, USA

Lindquist EE; Sabelis MW, Brun J., eds 1996 Eriophyoid mites: Their biology,

natural enemies and control World Crop Pests, Vol 6 Amsterdam, Elsevier

Prasad V, ed 1982 History of Acarology Indira Acarology Publishing, Michigan,

USA

Walter DE, Proctor HC 1999 Mites-Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour University

of New South Wales Press and CAB International, Sydney and Wallingford,

322 pp

Zhang Z-Q 2003 Mites of Greenhouses: Identification, Biology and Control CABI

Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 244 pp

In addition to the information given above, there may be several regional logical associations and many other journals publishing important acarological investigations regularly throughout the world Many books, monographs and tech-nical bulletins/reports on different fundamental and applied aspects of acarology are being published by agricultural, medical and veterinary universities of different countries (Zakhvatkin 1952; Zhang 2011, 2014) So interest in acarology is picking

acaro-up gradually as the role of mites and ticks is being realized because of their tions on different crops, storages, vectors of diseases and their impact as parasites/pests on human beings, domestic animals, zoo animals, poultry, etc Recently many molecular studies on understanding higher levels of taxonomy and even at species level have been made The results obtained from these studies are proving very use-ful tools even where morphological studies are not providing true information of relationship at different levels (Walter and Proctor 2010) Studies on genetic bar coding of different mites and tick species have also been reported

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associa-2.8 Conclusions

Survey of literature reveals awareness about mites and ticks in ancient Egypt (1550 BC), but the science of acarology originated in the eighteenth century alone References to the term Akari or Acari began appearing regularly in the literature,

and Linnaeus used the generic word Acarus for mites in his first edition of Systema

Naturae published in 1758 Later in tenth edition of Systema Naturae published in

1758, Linnaeus included 30 species of mites all under genus Acarus Thereafter,

references to mites and ticks regularly appeared and these organisms were reported under several schemes of higher classification But the science of acarology (scien-tific study of mites and ticks) started emerging as a modern science during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; however, during this period the mites and ticks were known by the names: Acarina, Acariens, Acaros and Acarida Historic significant contributions that were made by Kramer (1877), Canestrini (1891), Banks (1904) and Vitzthum (1940–1943) proved instrumental in establishing aca-

rology as a modern science In 1952 a very useful book An Introduction to Acarology

by Baker EW and Wharton GW appeared, and this stimulated interest in the science

of acarology globally Thereafter, many useful publications started appearing on taxonomy, ecology and other applied aspects from different regions of the world

This led to publication of the journal Acarologia in 1957; this journal published

information exclusively on mites and ticks Interest in acarology further resulted in formation of different societies at international, regional and country levels Some more journals exclusively publishing information on mites and ticks and some good books were written by eminent scientists in their field of specialization, which fur-ther helped in the development of this discipline At the international level, the

‘International Congress of Acarology’ was founded which organizes regularly after

4 years interval the meetings of the congress in different countries The first gress was held in the USA, and the 14th congress was held in 2014 in Japan Proceedings of the congress are being published regularly in book form At regional and country levels, many associations were formed which are conducting sympo-siums at different intervals

con-Further Reading

ChannaBasavanna GP, Nangia N (1988) Acarology in developing countries: glimpses and pects In: ChannaBasavanna GP, Viraktamath CA (eds) Progress in acarology, vol II Oxford and IBH, New Delhi, pp 469–473

pros-Evans GO, Till WM (1979) Mesostigmatid mites of Britain and Ireland (Chelicerata: Acari: Parasitiformes): an introduction to their morphology and classification Trans Zool Soc London 35:139–270

Flechtmann CHW (2011) Summary of the international congresses of acarology Zoosymposia 6:9–13

Halliday RB (2001) 250 years of Australian acarology In: Halliday RB, Walter DE, Norton RA, Coloff MJ (eds) Acarology: proceedings of the 10th international congress of acarology CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, pp 3–16

Hughes TE (1959) Mites or the Acari University of London, London, 400 pp

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Johnston DE (1968) An Atlas of Acari 1 The families of Parasitiformes and Opilioacariformes Acarology Laboratory, Ohio State University, Columbus, 110 pp

Krantz GW, Walter DE (2009) A manual of acarology, 3rd edn Texas-Tech University Press, Lubbock, 809 pp

Lindquist EE (1984) Current theories on the evolution of major groups of Acari and on their tionships with other groups of Arachnida with consequent implications for their classification In: Griffiths DA, Bowmann CF (eds) Acarology VI, vol 1 Ellis Harwood, Chichester, pp 28–62 Lindquist EE (2006) Poising for a new century In: Halliday RB (ed) Proceedings of 10th international congress of acarology CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, pp 17–34

rela-Prasad V (1982) History of acarology Indira Publishing House, Michigan, 472 pp

Vitzthum HG (1943) Acarina In: Bronnes Klassen und Ordnengen des Tierreikhes, 5 Abt.4, Buch

assess-Electronic Reference (ER)

1 https://acarology.osu.edu/history Acarology History

2 https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/8124/1/3Swift.pdf History of Acarology

over-5 http://www.esaeg.org/volumes/Vol1no1History.htm History of Acarology in Egypt

6 http://www.researchgate.net/publication/242137696 250 years of Australian Acarology

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eco-Keywords

Collection • Preservation • Mounting • Acaricides

The members of the Subclass Acari are a constant threat to economically important crops, stored grains, livestock, wildlife and humans Because of their small size, it

is very difficult to study their intricate structures on both the dorsal and ventral face of mite body which are otherwise useful in identifying them Different tech-niques utilized for their collection, preparation, preservation, culturing and

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