Maritime education and training

33 by Elaine Ives BSc FRMetS andJohn McEnaney BA MNI 5 Factors to be considered when developing a curriculum for maritime education and training ...38 by Professor Captain Gunther Zade F

EDUCATION AND

TRAINING

A Practical Guide

Published by The Nautical Institute

202 Lambeth Road, London SE 1 7LQ, England

telephone: 0171-928 1351 fax: 0171-401 2817 First edition published 1997 Copyright © The Nautical Institute, 1997

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers, except for the quotation of brief passages in reviews.

Although great care has been taken with the writing and production of this volume, neither The Nautical Institute nor the authors can accept any responsibility for errors, omissions or their consequences.

The opinions expressed are those of the authors only.

All photographs and diagrams acknowledged

Typeset by J avafame Computer Services Saffron Pane, Hall Road, Lavenham, Suffolk CO 10 9QU, England

Printed in England by The Repro Company, Hayes Road, Southall, Middlesex UB2 5NB

Frontispiece: JiI70rk at Seaby Captain D.A Hawker, taken from a study undertaken when working as an artist tutor for

The Marine Society The artist lives near Northampton

Foreword 1 - Mr W.A O'Neil 4

Secretary General, The IMO

Foreword 2 - Captain L.A Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI,

President, The Nautical Institute 1993-1996 5

Maritime Education and Training - The Overview 6

SECfION I - Applying the concepts of learning

Chapter

1 Concepts of learning and their application 8

by Mr Don Baillie ExC FNI

2 Concepts, skills and competence in a maritime setting 16

by Mr Don Baillie ExC FNI

3 Group learning and training techniques 23

by Mr Robert L Tallack BSc FNI, Northstar Maritime / Hill Tallack

4 The preparation of a lecture 33

by Elaine Ives BSc FRMetS andJohn McEnaney BA MNI

5 Factors to be considered when developing a curriculum for maritime education and training 38

by Professor Captain Gunther Zade FNI, World Maritime University

6 Training in the Royal Navy - its management and methodology , .45

by Rear AdmiralJ.H.S McAnally LVO MNI

SECfION II - Learning resources and educational technology

Chapter

7 Making the most of learning resources for both college and student 56

by Dr Alston Kennerley PhD FNI, University of Plymouth, UK

8 Electronic and multi-media systems and their value in education and training programmes 62

by Captain Michael Vanstone MNI, Technovo Training Systems Ltd

9 The development of computer based instructional programs 68

by Captain Michael Vanstone MNI, Technovo Training Systems Ltd

10 The use of simulators as tools for training and examining seafarers 76

by Dr Michael L Barnett PhD BSc MNI, Warsash Maritime Centre

11 The role of the simulator instructor and the need for instructor qualifications 85

by Captain Roger Syms BSc (Nautical Studies) MRIN FNI, Australian Maritime College

12 Managing navigational simulation 89

by Captain Samar J Singh ExC MPhil PhD FNI, Hong Kong Polytechnic University

13 The role and use of simulators for bridge resource management training 99

by Captain Piet Pols, MarineSafety International, Rotterdam

14 Training in shiphandling skills - optimising experience, simulation and time on manned models 107

by Captain Nigel W Hunt BSc FNI, Warsash Maritime Centre

15 The use of tactical warfare simulation for naval training 113

by Lt Cdr Andrew C.Y Prince RN, Royal Navy School of Maritime Operations, HMS DRYAD

SECfION III - The organisation of education and training

Chapter

16 Afloat and ashore: where are tomorrow's skills being developed? 120

by Mr.] David Precious AMNI, Precious Associates Ltd

17 The responsibility of a college principal - integrating a maritime college

with the maritime environment 126

by Captain Wan Shukry Wan Karma MSc, Maritime Academy of Malaysia Melaka

18 Developing company based training and the training of trainers 132

by Mr Glyn Cunnah BSc MNI, BP Shipping Ltd

19 The training, updating and upgrading of maritime lecturers 140

by Professor Captain Gunther Zade FNI, World Maritime University

20 Higher education in maritime disciplines - the development of graduate and

post graduate programmes 144

by Mr Steve Bonsall BSc MNI, LiverpoolJohn Moores University

21 The development and implementation of the 1995 STCW Convention 154

by Mr Stephen E Chapman BSc FNI

22 Translating international maritime training standards into national regulations 160

by Professor Captain P.S Vanchiswar ExC PhD FNI, World Maritime University

23 Training ship training 167

by Captain James C De Simone BS MBA MNI,

State' University of New York Maritime College, U.S.A

SECfION IV - Fundamentals of assessment and evaluation

Chapter

24 An introduction to norm referenced and criterion referenced assessment, marking and grading 173

by Professor Captain Peter Muirhead ExC MSc (Wales) FNI, World Maritime University

25 Preparing a company training strategy and assessing its effectiveness 180

by Mr Keith Parsons MNI, V Ships

26 The management of seafarers' training by shipping companies through a group training organisation 186

by Mr Colin Chandler BSc MNI, Ship Safe Training Group Ltd

27 An introduction to competence based training with a framework for vocational qualifications 189

by Mr R.C Matthew, UK Merchant Navy Training Board

28 The assessment of competence within a maritime vocational training scheme 196

by Captain Philip ].C Smith ExC FNI

29 The role of continuous assessment and the use of projects in student development 200

by Mr Christopher] Haughton BA Cert Ed MNI, Fleetwood Nautical Campus

30 The development and evaluation of examination systems based upon multiple choice criteria 207

by Mr Perry A Stutman, United States Coast Guard

31 Learning from students - feedback and evaluation 222

by Professor Captain Peter Muirhead ExC MSc FNI, World Maritime University

32 Management training and development in the shipping industry 229

by Mr Peter Springett MBA DMS (Shipping), Odyssey Training Ltd

SECfION V - Towards specialisation

Chapter

33 The role of the educational consultant 236

by Captain L.A Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI

34 Marine pilot training 241

by the late Captain James Drahos BS FNI, former Marine Pilot, South Central Alaska

35 Training for command 250

by Captain Peter Roberts BSc FNI

36 The need for commercial management 256

by Mr Robert L Tallack BSc FNI, Northstar Consultants

37 Training for new high speed craft services 265

by Captain Trevor Bailey MNI, Stena Line

38 Language training for non-native English speaking mariners 273

by Professor Captain F Weeks ExC MA PhD FNI

39 Training sea and shore staff to meet the requirements of the ISM Code 286

by Captain Graham] Botterill FICS MIQA FNI, Ferriby Marine

40 Guidance on the implementation of IMO Model Courses 292 extracts from IMO pub 096/88

41 The role of research in developing intellectual skills and their application 302

by Mr John S Habberley BSc MPhil FNI, Warsash Maritime Centre

42 Self development programmes for seafarers 307

Mr Brian Thomas BA (Hons) PGCE, The Marine Society, London

43 Aspects of distance education on board 311

by Mr Pooran P Chugani CEng FIMarE MIE DMS DPHE, India

44 Continuous professional development for maritime educators 320

by Mr C.Julian Parker BSc FNI, Secretary, The Nautical Institute

APPENDICES

Appendix

I Sources of information of particular value to maritime lecturers 327

II Some training books available from Kogan Page Ltd 328

III Some training books available from the Institute of Personnel and Development 331

FOREWORD I

by

Mr W.A O'NeilSecretary General, The International Maritime Organization

Shipping is an international industry It is therefore imperative that all seagoing officers share a common sense

of purpose and apply rules and regulations in like manner

Also we have to recognize that every individual is different and there will be various paths through educationand training programmes towards certification

Today, maritime education and training is based on standards established by IMO The 1995 amendments tothe International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW),

1978 entered into force in 1997 and, during the next few years, will result in training standards having to beupgraded The text of the original Convention has been almost completely replaced; equally important, IMOitself has been given responsibility for ensuring that the new standards are complied with Governments which donot meet STCW requirements could find that their seafarers are denied employment on foreign flag ships becausetheir certificates are not internationally recognized

This book, which contains some of the best advice available, is designed to improve our understanding andorganisation It is well timed, for the moment of most need It will help existing maritime teachers, trainers andassessors and will be particularly useful for those seeking to enter this branch of their profession It is a usefulguide and reference for all senior officers and managers whose job includes mentoring and guiding juniors andtrainees It is also recommended reading for simulator manufacturers and others who serve this sector of industry.Associated with the book there is a self-study distance learning diploma scheme for those who wish to enter themaritime education and training profession The scheme comprises six assignments, which demand a provencapability to plan for and deliver competence, manage curriculum development and assess results There is also

a project designed to provide the candidate with an in-depth specialised knowledge of a particular discipline.Your professional work at sea or working ashore requires specific detailed knowledge and a wide range ofskills Teaching requires different knowledge and skills Maritime education and training needs a blend of the two

It is not always the cleverest people who make the best teachers, but the ones who are best at passing on theirknowledge and skills As a teacher your knowledge will need to go beyond the confines of certificates of competencysyllabuses You must know your subject thoroughly and keep yourself up to date with new theories and currentpractice Teachers should provide a link to the wider understanding of technology, commerce and people No onecan afford to throw their books away when they qualify In a changing world, teachers can light the torch of life-long learning, which their students will need

This book, based upon the experience of respected teachers from many countries, will help you prepare towork as a teacher or trainer, whether as a career change or for shorter assignments It is said, "the best way to learn

a subject is to teach it" When I was allowed on my own in the classroom for the first time, and students askedawkward questions, I realised the limits of my knowledge and experience You cannot rely on recalling what youwere taught ten or more years ago: things have changed There are ways of coping I was fortunate to have a verygood teacher as my mentor when I started, but I wish I had also had this book!

Teaching comes more naturally to some people than to others, but all teachers need to plan and perform in aprofessional and competent way We all remember the teachers from school days who captured our imaginationand made subjects interesting They tended to be the enthusiastic and happy ones They were well organised,maintained discipline, were sympathetic and supportive Discipline and integrity are also important, particularlywhen dealing with younger trainees and in examinations I remember the first two students I had to fail forattempting to cheat They passed a piece of paper across and back, via the floor, while I was invigilating It did nothelp them The first had written, "What is an Interscan Cursor?" and the other had replied "I don't know!"

We are very fortunate in the maritime world, and particularly in the professional bodies, that we have so manypeople who are willing to make time and take trouble to pass on their skills to the next generation I would like tothank all those who have contributed to this book, which will take its place alongside those for Command at Sea,Harbour Masters, Pilots and Surveyors The Maritime Education and Training Diploma Scheme will take its placetoo, by providing advice and guidance to those wishing to become specialists in this branch of their profession.The rewards of teaching are many Probably the greatest satisfaction is gained through seeing the success offormer students The friendships and mutual respect developed between trainer and trainee tend to last wellbeyond the gaining of certificates of competency or graduation I can recommend it If you wish to become ateacher or trainer, think ahead and be prepared The best place to prepare for teaching ashore, is while you are atsea This book will help you to "learn to swim" as a teacher, before being thrown in at the deep end I wish yousuccess

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

THE OVERVIEW

Maritime Education and Training, is designed to provide an authorative guide to effective practices It includeslearned contributions from no less than 39 authors with a vast wealth of combined experience, from countries asfar apart as Australia, England, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, The Netherlands, Sweden and The United States ofAmerica

The editorial board for Maritime Education and Training included Captain Len Holder (former President, TheNautical Institute), Mr D Baillie, Mr S Bonsall, Mr G Cunnah, Mr.J.S Habberley, Mr CJ Houghton, Dr A.Kennerley, Captain C.F Luddeke, Mr K.A Parsons, Mr J.D Precious, Mr E Raeng, Captain M.G Vanstone,Professor Captain G Zade and Mr Julian Parker (Secretary The Nautical Institute)

There are two forewords, one by Mr O'Neil, Secretary General of the IMO and one by Captain Len Holder,who was President of The Nautical Institute from 1993 to 1996

In Section I - Applying the Concepts of Learning - the principles of learning in a maritime setting areexplored and advice is given on various techniques and factors to be considered The authors combine sea,government, academic and consultancy experience and set the scene for maritime instructors on helping learners

to learn The final chapter in this section is an interesting insight into training in the Royal Navy today, how it ismanaged and the methods used

Section II is about Learning Resources and Educational Technology Chalk and talk, whilst not to beunder-rated, have long been replaced by more modern technology Electronic, multi-media and computer-basedprograms are described and how best to use them The authors, with world-wide experience in practical trainingand education delivery, offer detailed and up-to-date advice Simulators play an ever increasing part in training,and the subject is extensively covered here, including the training of simulator instructors Again, the Royal Navyadds its view on training simulators at the end of the section

The Organisation of Education and Training is covered in Section III University, academy, college andcompany views come from highly qualified authors Training ashore and afloat, how to integrate maritime trainingwith the industry, lecturer updating and implementation of the STCW Convention are amongst the items covered

in detail An American view of training cadets afloat concludes this section

In Section IV - Fundamentals of Assessment and Evaluation - covers the vitally important task ofchecking that learning is effective Highly detailed chapters on assessment, evaluation, multiple choice questions,feedback from students and management development are presented by authors with extensive and ongoingexperience ashore and afloat

Section V - Towards Specialisation - concludes this book with chapters on a fascinating of specialisttraining matters, including consultancy work, pilotage, command, high speed ships, the commercial approachand maritime English language Meeting the requirements of the ISM Code and guidance on IMO Model Coursesare complemented by advice on self-development programmes, distance education and continuing professionaldevelopment

The appendices give valuable details on sources of information and some training books available

All in all, Maritime Education and Training provides highly professional, skilled and practical advice on maritimeeducation and training drawn from very experienced authors from countries all over the globe This book should

be the text book of choice for all seriously interested in the subject

J.A Hepworth

Lt Cdr RN (Retd) MNI

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

SECTION I Applying the concepts of learning

-Chapter ONE

by Mr Don Baillie Ex C FNI

Introduction

reflected for long on their own experiences They mayThe aim of this publication is to help those who seek have a strong need to believe that life is simple andguidance in the task of raising the professional uncomplicated Tell them "Variety is the spice of life".standards of seafarers through education and training

These standards may be set by IMO, by examiners, You may recall some sayings about learning and

by lecturers, assessors, The Nautical Institute, or by teaching

the example and demands of serving seafarers The

standards are achieved through learning, alone or in "It's never too late to learn"

a group, at sea or ashore, by accident or by design "You can't teach an old dog new tricks"

That is why the guide begins with these reflections on "A little learning is a dangerous thing"

the key aspects oflearning Many later chapters discuss "We must learn to walk before we can run"

in detail ways in which trainers, tutors and students "Experience is the best teacher"

set about organising effective learning Here we review "Wise men learn from others, fools by their ownthe main ideas which help them to develop and select mistakes"

an appropriate method for a particular situation

Take your pick Each is sometimes true None is

"We live and learn" Think for a moment of all the always a guide For you who have an interest inthings you learned before you went to school: walking, teaching, reflecting on your own experience is antalking, eating (in the approved manner), being important starting point You will probably recollectrespectful, laughing, and so on Think what you that expertise gives a teacher authority Andlearned during your school years but not at school: enthusiasm will often convey the importance, interestriding a bike, shopping, dealing with illness, much or excitement of the subject Both expertise andmore In or out of school you will have had a few enthusiasm are necessary or desirable, but they doinspiring teachers, many who shaped your learning not guarantee to bring about learning That is thesuccessfully, some who told you much that you have teacher's art

now forgotten; but always the learning will have been

done by you There is no doubt that you have the We find it easier to begin studying navigation byability to learn Do not doubt that those whose assuming the earth to be a sphere, the local surface ofstandards you wish to raise also have the ability to the sea to be flat, and the tides to rise and fall in a

very helpful to begin with, and often can be taken 'forYou, and they, have learned (and forgotten) in a all practical purposes' to be true But the competenthuge variety of ways and circumstances from a large navigator, who is a practical person, must know thenumber of different people If anyone says to you circumstances in which it can become uneconomic or

"There is only one way to learn" they cannot have dangerous to cling to those simplified assumptions

like exams or pleasing the teacher, because you cannot convinced of a teacher's good intentions they willvary your approach to allow for individual differences accept some rebukes, but if that comes early the effectBut if you are helping a shipmate, teaching in a tutorial is likely to be sharply to diminish their willingness tosetting, or learning on your own the intrinsic ask questions, risk failure, or seek help So, be positivemotivations can be used effectively whenever possible, and especially in the early stages.

The leamer's first impressions of a teacher are difficultThe main reason for trying to use intrinsic to change The shared smile of pleasure, the "That'smotivation as a teacher in marine colleges is simple right" and "Well done!" are effective

enough, and very relevant to the aims of The Nautical

Institute Competence examinations are a very Any breakdown in the 'cycle' oflearning can causepowerful motivator for learning whatever has to be loss of motivation, though sometimes it will provide alearned to pass them, but the motive disappears as spur to greater effort So the later sections on attention,soon as the exam has been passed The successful perception and feedback also contain relevantcandidate for a Master's Certificate can then serve for references to motives

thirty or more years with the Authorities assuming he

will learn whatever is necessary to keep him The aspects of motivation included in this littlecompetent But the only sure way for that to happen review are those which a teacher or instructor can most

is for him to want to go on learning, which is most easily influence It would be unrealistic to make nolikely if he is driven by intrinsic motives It follows mention of the attitudes of the leamer, which can makethat while college teachers, and individual students, the teacher's task very easy or almost impossible onwill look to a variety of motives, no opportunity should occasions But don't forget that a learner may think

be missed to encourage the growth of intrinsic ones his teacher has attitudes, too, which make learningServing officers are usually better placed to do this, easier or harder!

for two reasons They can concentrate their help on

activities or subjects that are clearly necessary to the Attitudes

efficient running of the ship they are on, not some

other type of ship, or some exam syllabus It is here An attitude is a readiness to act in a certain way It isthat one finds job satisfaction, which is one of the often unpredictable, as when we talk of people beingintrinsic motives Secondly, the good ship's officer is 'moody', but it seems to have a big influence on howthe one that the learner tries to emulate, and the a person reacts to a situation The outcome, in thestandards he sets are the ones which are taken to heart, learning processes that interest us, is usually seen as a

so to speak College teachers help by making their willingness or unwillingness to take an active part Thesubject interesting and by referring to topics clearly person with the attitude seems to evaluate whether orrelevant but beyond the strict syllabus limits not taking part is more likely to be harmful or

beneficial to them They may push themselves

To conclude this section, let's review the main ways forward, or they may try to avoid being involved; to

in which a teacher, instructor or tutor can use catch or to avoid the teacher's eye

motivations to help a learner make progress Initially,

vocational students are usually motivated by the desire There are usually two components to an attitude

to pass exams and to master the skills and knowledge These are feelings, which are often more obvious; andrequired for their present or next job The teacher there are beliefs (or opinions) which the learner canshould make as clear as possible what that involves in use to justify his attitude if challenged These feelingsterms of effort by the leamer, and where possible we tend to call positive or negative; they are probablydemonstrate the standard of performance to be based in personal history, but also in aspirations Whatachieved This provides goals or targets, and it is bad we believe about our self, the sort of person we arefor motivation to discover later that you were aiming and would like to become, is important but not easy

at something else But it is also bad for motivation if for others to see, or for us to be consistent about.the goal seems to be too far away to be reached, so

the teacher often breaks the process down into The other component is more open to influence.manageable steps and can then use a wider variety of The leamer's attitude to learning is strongly influencedmeans to help the learner along, such as a 'public' by his belief in its relevance to his purpose If a task iscommitment to devote a certain time to a task thought to be pointless, a skill obsolete, or a drill

ineffectual, the learner can believe he is justified in'Nothing succeeds like success' Very few people avoiding the drudgery oflearning At the other end ofactually like having their mistakes pointed out, the scale of relevance and interest he will approachnecessary though this may be So good teachers strive the task eagerly And while every variation of attitude

to make sure that encouragement outweighs criticism, lies between these poles, you may occasionally comeand that criticism is presented as help rather than across even greater extremes - individuals who denypunishment When a class or individual learner is responsibility for any success or failure, or who claim

total responsibility for it But they are unlikely to have enough to encourage dreams Fatigue, whether fromprospered in the teamwork necessary at sea, or in a previous activity or lack of sleep, is obviouslycollege unhelpful, as are hunger, hangovers and a full bladder.

It is normal for any learner to feel some anxiety Unhelpful mental states such as anxiety andabout things he cannot yet do, and confidence about boredom also distract attention from learning Youthings already achieved Too much anxiety is may even be feeling a little of that now, reader, becauseundesirable, as is overconfidence, but in dealing with all this is well known to you What is the best responseindividuals the teacher can often use a little of one to for you? Read faster, skip a paragraph, make a cup ofmodify the other Not by ridicule or sarcasm, which coffee, scan through it again to make sure it's asare as damaging in private as in public, but by facing straightforward as you are thinking? I hope you dothe overconfident with a more complex problem, and what's best for you, but whatever you do it will involve

by reminding the anxious that they have a record of a change of activity, mental or physical or both Yousuccess already will be more active than before, and this is one of the

keys to effective learning It is why this author whoPsychology sheds a little light on attitudes, and has no control of how you learn, only what is on theprovides plenty of food for the thoughtful teacher, but page in front of you, frequently asks you to stop

it does not provide answers This is because attitudes reading and think, recollect, imagine - any activity toare so closely associated with individual experience, make a change, however short, from just reading.personalities and preferences Yet a professional study

programme which gives no attention to attitudes, and But if you are expecting to start or to improve yourespecially 'openness' to going on learning, is in danger teaching or instructional skills there are plenty more

of being a bag of tricks performed for examiners but ways to get and hold the attention of learners whichnot carried out where it matters - on the ship will be dealt with in later chapters You will be a

planner, a performer, a communicator, a source of

perhaps, who will be remembered by future

It is obvious that the learner has to pay attention to generations with affection or respect One who holdswhatever he is trying to learn Some students have attention, by style or by authority

tried to improve their memorisation of the Collision

Regulations by falling asleep with their 'Walkman' Before we change the subject let's change theplaying the words into their unconscious ears, but the activity again Try to recall two or three people whoeffectiveness of learning while asleep has not been have taught you things, in school, college or at sea.established By contrast the effectiveness of taking a Did they all hold your attention in the same ways?rest from time to time is a universal experience Reflect What did they have in common and what were theiragain on your own experience; most people will recall differences? Did they all make you and their otheroccasions when a problem which has been causing students learn efficiently? Would you like to emulatedifficulty is put aside After a period of attending to any of them?

something entirely different you return to the problem

and quickly hit upon the solution Coincidence? Or I have directed your well-motivated attentionperhaps the change of activity caused, or permitted, towards positive aspects of your experience, but thereyou to forget the unsuccessful methods of solution is much to be learned by reflecting on things you willwhich were hard to get out of your thinking while you hope NOT to do yourself Some of the mostpersisted Whatever the reason, the concept of knowledgable of men never quite master the need forattention is not as simple as it first seems You can voice modulation and eye contact, or the modest skillshave too much of it Also, it can be directed at the of slide projection

wrong things My physics teacher in pre-sea training

always emitted a whistle when pronouncing the's' The aim of attracting and directing the attentionsound in words like whistle and pronounce I can of the learner is to achieve the next condition forremember that, from over forty years ago, more clearly successful progress along the spiral, which is correctthan what physics he taught me perception of what has to be remembered or

performed

What can teachers and learners do to maximise

attentiveness? Both can be conscious of a few bodily Perception

matters, though only one may be able to do anything

about them Fresh air to breathe, good lighting for the Perception refers to the ways in which the braineyes to work by, no distractions for the ears (though organises the information brought to it by the senses.music doesn't seem to distract the individual), and Despite a century of research this is still a controversialenough comfort for the blood to circulate yet not matter when it comes to explanations Fortunately,

the principles guiding teachers are generally accepted You will be familiar with a reverse process, wherebyand we can leave the theorists to their work you "see" a circular plate despite the image on your

eye being the ellipse produced by a tilted circle The

To illustrate the concept of perception we will take brain has learned this trick and it serves us well.examples from the senses of hearing and sight, but

you will soon see that the ideas apply to touch, taste Another aspect of perception is referred to in theand smell as well The letter 'N can be written or English saying that "You can't see the wood for theprinted in thousands of slightly or considerably trees" Too much detail prevents us from grasping thedifferent ways; yet most of these different visual main idea Or if several people say the same thing butpatterns arriving at your eyes are given the same slightly out of phase the listener misses the message.meaning by your brain Sometimes you have to make Too many instructions baffle the learner

an effort, mainly you don't, but in any event you

perceive the same thing - unless the differences are But once you have perceived a wood, or a ship,important In that case you may perceive a capital, you are likely to be interested to know what kind ofitalic or Greek a; but there are still thousands of ways wood or ship it is, and in this case the development ofthat one of those can be represented to your eyes, so perception involves discrimination, attention tothe event is much the same - you construct the same significant detail, and so on, so as to refine the brain'sperception, though the light falling on your eye is ability to make more, or more accurate meaning fromdifferent Closer to our interests, consider how we hear the sense data available

the same instructions or advice from many different

pilots, each with a unique accent and style of speech This is the teacher's chief interest in ideas aboutBetween ear and brain we decode these different noises perception They may help him to communicate

so as to perceive the same words in one language accurately and clearly, and to diagnose and correct

the misperceptions and vagueness in the developing

A different process may be at work when, on the ideas and skills of his students With adult professionalbridge on a dark night, you see a single white light students the main task for the teacher, or the studentThis simple signal to your eye could have a large learning on his own, will often be making the rightnumber of meanings once your brain gets to work on connections between what is known already and what

it, and some that don't come to mind Your perception is new

here is clearly affected by past experience and

learning, and particularly by the context On a main Language is obviously a vital tool in learning, andshipping route but well away from land you may almost any word may be wrongly perceived or callperceive a masthead or stern light, and get a nasty up a faulty concept in the student's mind We shallshock if it turns out to be an improperly lit fishing see that feedback to the teacher is vital in correcting

at this point, but benefits from the development ofPerception, then, is the way the brain "makes strategies to test his own understanding which provesense" of what our senses detect Psychologists invaluable later; actively 'making sense' of what hasentertain us with examples of how we can be misled to be learned is a form of problem-solving of general

Space limits us to two In the first, one of the main application If 'teacher' does too much of the work,lines looks longer than the other In the second the this general mental skill will not be promoted.long lines appear to converge when they are parallel

Check them for yourself Acquiring knowledge and skills presents enough

problems for the learner without teachers adding tothem So the teacher plans his approach withperception as a factor For example, when we arelearning to use a PC it is all too easy for an enthusiasticinstructor to expect the learner to attend to thekeyboard, the screen and the instructor's wordssimultaneously Unless the three sources ofinformation are presented in a careful sequence thebeginner is likely to be confused Yet each source issimple enough in itself, so he will be tempted to saythat he has followed, and hope the teacher goes awayfor long enough for him to sort out what washappening by trial and error

When helping the student to acquire knowledge

ideas, names and formulae is aided by such well- a teacher he will have been active, too, either directingknown means as underlining, capitals, and box you or passing on his knowledge or skill in a dynamicdiagrams Teachers use the loudness and tone of their way which kept your attention focused Thus,voices to emphasise important things, not only the purposeful activity is a basic feature of most learning,words they speak and in situations where that is difficult to observe, such

as in lectures or when reading, the experience is lessThe main skill involved in perceptual learning is likely to be memorable

discrimination, which is the ability to differentiate

between similar sensory signals For example, Feedback, or knowledge of results

engineers need to be able to discriminate between

smells that are normal and those that might be You have probably used correspondence courses andassociated with danger; or, if they have lost that skill, written essays during your training If so, you maythey still need to tell which alarm sound relates to recognise that many people, on receiving work backwhich danger Bridge watchkeepers have to try to from the marker, take good note of the mark awardedjudge whether or not the bearing of an approaching but pay little attention to any detailed comments Theyship is changing enough for safety may, in the case of correspondence course work,

hardly remember the questions The overall mark maySharpening these skills is one of the unending tasks make them feel good, bad or indifferent If they feel

of teachers and instructors It is not much talked about good it will help their motivation to keep going; ifbecause it is an integral part of their work in most they feel bad it may spur them to greater efforts; butcontexts It usually crops up when the learner admits in any case the feedback is too remote in time from

to feeling "confused" The eyes and ears may be getting the specific learning to be of much use unless theycontradictory signals, or the new ideas will not fit revise the learning when the results arrive No wonder,comfortably with the information already held in the then, that a lot of vocational study has to be repeatedbrain The teacher (or book) may be responsible for in college whatever was attempted at sea - unless therethe confusion, but in this unfair world one of the is strong motivation from other sources

satisfying moments in a teacher's life is when the

problem is resolved, and the learner says with relief Contrast the feedback in correspondence courses

"Ah! I see!" Perception complete with that given to students preparing for oral

examination Each highly specific question requires a

The activity of the learner and the quick and usually brief answer which is instantly

is efficient both for the learning of the subject matter

At last we have got to the engine room of the business and for strengthening the motivation of the successful

of education and training, you are probably thinking student "Nothing succeeds like success", providing

But this is the shortest section of this chapter The Success in a final exam is a different matter.reason is that the main techniques of teaching, such as Undoubtedly it is gratifying and good for motivation.lecturing, coaching, computer-based learning and Unfortunately unless the exam scripts are returned tosimulation and the use of visual and other aids are the candidate - an unusual procedure - he cannot beall given chapters to themselves later in the guide Here certain which questions he answered correctly So with

we can review the features we expect any of these a pass mark of 70% there is a possibility of beingtechniques to have, ifthey are to succeed in connecting mistaken about more than 25% of the subject matterthe learners permanently to the subject matter on which he has been tested for competence No

information has been provided on the syllabus items

We have seen that the presentation of what has to not covered in that particular examination paper This

be learned should increase rather than undermine the should remind us that however important the examslearners' motivation and attention, strengthen positive are for motivation, it's the quality of the training andattitudes and lead to accurate perceptions This is learning that counts in setting overall standards ofobviously easier if the subject-matter is seen to be competence!

relevant and interesting, and the learner has a good

grasp of necessary prior knowledge and skills Later Training on board provides the opportunity to

we shall see the importance offeedback iflearning is make full use of feedback because two-way

to be efficient, and of repetition if it is to be effective communication between learner and instructor can

be immediate and of high quality College trainingThis section is headed 'activity' Recall a typical programmes will make provision for one-to-onesuccessful learning occasion You will have been active, contacts in which the teacher has the chance to testmentally and probably physically as well If you had individual understanding closely, and to diagnose the

source of failure to comprehend or perform accurately or skill - memorised the facts, grasped the idea, orBut the economics of educational institutions usually 'got the knack'.

requires that a high proportion of time is spent in

lectures, libraries or working alone, and these are times In any event, between the first exposure towhen feedback may be of uncertain quality or absent something new, and the belief that we have 'learned

to the faculty with which we retain something fromWhere active learning is at its most effective the each cycle - our memory

concept of feedback is itself a two-way one The learner

can question his instructor, to test or extend his own Memory

understanding, just as the instructor questions the

learner to assess the effectiveness of his teaching It is not just education and training that rely on theCompare the potential ofthat situation with a lecture, idea of memory All progress, meaning desired

a video or a guide like this! improvement, and all continuity, by which individuals,

families, nations, religions try to maintain the best ofFeedback is not all conducted in speech and the past, depend on memory And yet science stillwriting Interaction between teacher and student is, struggles to provide an adequate explanation of itslike any other conversation or meeting, full of operation Computers can have memories (well, that'snonverbal signals Gestures, nods, smiles, frowns, eye what we call them; superstores might be a better name)movements and body posture are all used to convey of huge size, and retrieval systems of staggering speed.meaning But they can also be habits that are unhelpful They can be made to simulate all sorts of scenarios as

to good learning For example, there are learners who though they remembered them, to be expert,habitually nod and smile whatever the teacher is intelligent, masters of chess and so on But when itsaying The teacher may feel pleased, but the feedback comes to forgetting, dreaming and having new ideas

is unreliable Another example is the lecturer who has they are no match for humans Perhaps science will

a way of saying "OK?" at the end of most sentences crack it next year, but meanwhile we must do the best

It sounds like an invitation to stop him if you don't we can with brain cells instead of microprocessors.understand, but his audience knows that the lecture

will never end if we all air our doubts; so all he sees To the teacher or the lone student we can offerare the nods Nods are nice to receive, so he pays more some guidance First, there is no substitute forattention to the nodders and the feedback again repetitive practice at the two extremes oflearning Tobecomes unreliable achieve and maintain the highest levels of skill; and

to memorise unrelated facts (such as morse codeTurning our attention back to the learner, and the signals, or the order of the alphabet) there are no shortimportance offeedback to him, one last example can cuts Of course the teacher can organise the

be drawn from the development of skills Manual opportunities and provide feedback; and occasionallysteering involves relating visual signals about existing a gifted learner will turn up who has a 'photographicand desired headings to the amount of wheel applied memory' or is a 'born shiphandler', but don't count

in the prevailing conditions Visual feedback is on it There is no escaping that some learning requiresobviously essential to the process, and it is provided persistent application, not to say drudgery, to achieveboth by the deviation from the desired heading and the memorisation needed by head and hand

by the rate of change The skilled helmsman relates

the two effectively, as does the auto But notice the Second, the practice is usually more effective whentwo general points: the feedback is essential to skill spaced out rather than concentrated in long sessions.acquisition; and the sooner you get it the better In This is not 'common sense' and sometimes upsetspractice good feedback also motivates the learner to accountants who would prefer to pay for short,improve by his own efforts intensive coaching; that may be good for computers

but it doesn't suit humans This we know fromThis completes one cycle of our ideal spiral of experience as well as from research Spending too longlearning Very occasionally, the strength of one feature at one go trying to learn to drive a car, or to memorisewill be such that we will learn from the first experience the Colregs, or to comprehend the law of contract, isPowerful motives, an extremely positive attitude, a counterproductive For some reason a change ofclear insight, a feeling of exhilaration, or very painful activity, just as much as a rest, helps us to remember(or pleasant) feedback; any of these may account for for the long term And the more different the

us learning something at the first attempt intervening activity, the better; asking your trainee (or

yourself) to calculate a Pacific tide as a change fromMore often, however, we shall have to repeat the European ones is a recipe for confusion rather thaneffort in total or in part to satisfy ourselves or others rest The toilets at the Nautical College, Wars ash, usedthat we have learned and retained some knowledge to have a wall chart of the International Code flags on

the back of the door What better regular but spaced brain processes information from the senses, and thenout practice, with quite different activity in the tries to fit it in with the memories already in store, tointervals, could you contrive? Whether the cadets were form perceptions We are struggling, together, topaying attention to the learning task I cannot say understand what is happening in our nervous systems

and brains and so are several branches of science andThird, most of the knowledge that a seafarer has philosophy The tongue and the word processor (and

to acquire is not like the Morse or International Codes, the teacher) can only deal with one aspect at a time,but is based on subjects which have a sound basis in whereas the brain can and does link them allscience or experience Memory in these areas is well inextricably in its actions

served by making connections For example, building

the study of stability up from our basic understanding Be that as it may, the swift and certain application

of water pressure and gravity; or, in a different way, of professional competence depends on a extending our understanding of navigation by equipped and well-disciplined memory

well-developing the general concept of position lines Being

able to use these connections is often the difference To summarise the ways in which the role ofbetween 'knowing' the facts and 'understanding' the memory in learning can be developed, there is firstsubject The memory is then in a condition to grow the repetitive spaced practice in recalling factualeasily and to tackle problems effectively material Then there is the recognition, and later

recollection, of the connections between things ThisFourth, the process of storing and retrieving forming of 'mental maps' is helped by simplifiedinformation is immensely helped for us humans by presentations, especially visual aids which pick out thethe use of any device which extracts significant significant features of what has to be remembered Itfeatures An obvious example is an abbreviation It is as though a good memory is first and foremost aseems a paradox that it can be easier to remember well-organised store, with good signs and labels, or athree things - the abbreviation, the fact that it's an good 'cargo plan' from which retrieval at the right portabbreviation, and what it's an abbreviation for - GM, in undamaged condition can almost be guaranteed.for example - than just to remember the name

Metacentric Height More significant devices are :- Conclusion

rhymes (our grandfathers learned much of the Rule

of the Road in verse form) like "Error East, Compass A teacher or instructor is many things He (or she) is aLeast"; sayings like "Men very easily make jugs serve source of knowledge, a demonstrator of skill, a judgeuseful and numerous purposes" whose initial letters of standards, a mentor passing on the values andtrace the sequence of planets outward from the Sun; expectations of his main occupation, one whoand any rule, rule of thumb, sequence, procedure or encourages, steers and prompts those who want orformula that helps us to pull out of the memory the need to make progress, and shares the pleasure offull details stored there success and the disappointment of setbacks To do

these things well the teacher must communicate well,Even more efficient than these verbal and symbolic so it should be no surprise that some of the bestcompressions are direct visual representations The teachers are like good actors They perform well in apower of visual aids is detailed elsewhere in this guide, variety of roles, and they have thought hard about

so it is enough here to state that sketches, diagrams, their parts You will find this illustrated in many of theplans and silhouettes, for examples, are presentations following chapters of this guide

whose simplifications are good news for our memories

A fine example is the familiar diagram of the purely In this first chapter we have chosen to place theimaginary Celestial Sphere which reduces a huge learner at the centre of the process and to see howamount of information to a compact and much more learning involves his active contribution, which thememorable space Tabulations and 'family trees' are teacher may have to stimulate We have scanned someother examples of ways of compressing information of the aspects of the psychology oflearning which haveabout relationships, just as are drawings of ships most relevance to adult vocational study and offeredPulling the picture-memory out of store and talking a few examples from the wide spectrum of a deckabout it is far more efficient than memorising a written officer's interests If your appetite for further studyverbal description has been whetted there are many fascinating books

on motivation, perception and remembering from

If you have read through this chapter you may have which to choose But you will find the points of specialwondered where perception stops and memory begins interest to nautical teachers applied elsewhere in thisMemorising and remembering can be seen as storing guide Good reading

and retrieving perceptions We also have seen that the

Chapter TWO

CONCEPTS, SKILLS AND COMPETENCE

IN A MARITIME SETTING

by Mr Don Baillie Ex C FNI

Following pre-sea training at King Edward VII Nautical College in London, Don Baillie served his apprenticeshiP with what is now

BP Tankers and was a deck officer with BP and P&O.After obtaining the Extra Master's Certificate hejoined the teaching staff of his old college While teaching he obtained an advanced diploma in mathematics and attended a teacher training course In 7965 he was appointed to the staff of the only UK college which prepared seafarers for lecturerposts in nautical colleges.

Five years later, when he was completing studies for a Master's Degree in Educational Research, he was invited to become one of Her Majesty's Inspectors monitoring the work of technical colleges in general and marine colleges in particular In that capacity he advised the UK Department of Education on the needs and quality of nautical education, and represented that Department on the Merchant Navy Training Board, the National Sea Training Trust, and on committees of the Council for National Academic Awards, the Technician Education Council and then BTEG He worked closely with the Department of Transport's Chief Examiners in curriculum and examination developments and the provision of simulators, and published many reports on aspects of nautical education and the work of the marine departments and faculties.He organised several conferencesfor lecturers in marine fields, and recently retired after

23 years as H M Inspector.

probably had a much better idea of my competence

To achieve competence a learner has to acquire some than the examiner who passed me, but I needed theknowledge and develop some abilities To be awarded Government's approval even more than I wanted

a Certificate he has to have them assessed In this theirs

chapter we take a look at the division of practical

competence into skills and concepts (or underpinning These two aspects of competence are sometimesknowledge), and the implications for teachers and given the names 'Knowing That' and 'Knowing How'

because we need to look deeper If you are allowed to

To begin with, the division is in essence a establish your competence in a skill by describing howconvenient one for talking about the way we can you would do it, rather than by actually doing it inorganise teaching and assessment It is not an accurate the presence of an assessor, you are only proving youdescription of human learning Skill and knowledge know that it ought to be done in this way, not that youare normally interwoven Usually we add to our can do it 'knowing that' has taken the place ofknowledge by learning a skill, and we refine our skills 'knowing how' The real skill has not been assessed

as we develop related concepts This is a common You have persuaded the assessor of your competenceexperience on simulator courses, for example by your knowledge of associated concepts - know-how

- without demonstrating command of the skill itself.There are some skills - like swimming - which we

can develop with hardly any important knowledge, Concepts - the basis of 'underpinning

and there is knowledge - like the meaning of chart knowledge'

symbols - which we can acquire without any special

skill The way we teach these is not very cont~~tious; When we say that we have a concept of something,practical experience for one and rote memonsmg for we mean that we are able to think in our brains aboutthe other But where knowledge and skill help each thO •d h· h t ·d th b· th

a 1ng or 1 ea w 1C IS ou Sl e ose raIns, m eother there is always scope for trying out different "real" world For example, we can think about 'ship'amounts of each, in different orders or 'officer' or 'headway' without having to have a

picture of any of these concepts in our mind's eye.Likewise the method chosen for the assessment of Concepts are the basic elements of the work of thecompetence usually relates to the relative importance mind They are comparable to genes in biology They

of skill and knowledge in the competence concerned, link the information we receive from our environmentbut this is distorted by considerations of cost and with the sense that we make of it, and how we respondcredibility For example, the skill aspects of position- to it Some people say that every word we use standsfixing, s~ch as they are, have been ashsesbsedinf for a concept, and for the purposes of communication,

and particularly teaching, this can help If your junior, way to develop a concept is for the teacher to show

or trainee, doesn't understand a statement, you need the learner where the boundaries of the concept are

to be sure which word or words are causing the to be found - by presenting items that have somedifficulty features of the concept, but others that don't belong

The buoy floats like the ship, but doesn't carry cargo;

In the adult world most of the concepts behind the ship floats like the buoy, but isn't moored in aeveryday words are well-established in most special place

individuals, and the teacher is mainly engaged in

refining them, connecting them or introducing new Of course some concepts can be simply defined inones which help to build professional or other terms of other concepts, for example 'ellipse' Others,knowledge, and competence like 'logarithm', have definitions that generations of

students have learned without any understanding.The word 'concept' itself, like some other words, Others again, like 'celestial sphere', are wonderful actscan be ambiguous It sometimes stands for your own of the imagination

private understanding of what a word means But it

may also stand for the accepted definition by a public Let's stop with 'ship' a little longer It is not a seriousauthority such as 'society in general', or 'the DTp', or problem that dictionaries have slightly different'the Law' Here again it is often the teacher's job to definitions It doesn't really matter thatthe borderlinebring these two versions of a concept into line between 'ship' and 'boat' is unknown PracticallyProgressive thinkers frequently try to expand or alter everyone HAS a concept of 'ship' and it is instructivethe use of a concept, and the resistance to this can to think how they might have come by it Perhapslead them to propose new words, or uses of words, they came across 'boat' first, and think of a ship as awhich we sometimes call 'jargon' big boat That would be to develop a new concept

from its relationship with an old one Or perhaps theyJargon irritates us only if we discover that we 'knew' already have a concept from stories about Vikingwhat the jargon word stands for; we had the concept 'ships' and the Titanic; then their concept developmentalready, but not the word For example, many a small might be governed by asking of each new floating thingbusinessman will have a very clear concept of how with a mast, is this a ship? Here is a bulker, is it athe pricing of an item can affect sales and profits, but 'ship'? Here is a tug, is it a 'ship'? The most famousseem to have no idea what the young salesman means example of the difficulty of this approach is believing

by 'elasticity of demand' that ostriches and penguins are really 'birds'

So the teacher of 'new' concepts is in a minefield Of course it is much more important to be clear(I hope we share the same concept of a minefield) about a lot of other concepts, such as 'unstable' andThe learner may have a good conception of the new 'untrustworthy' but here again there are basically twomaterial, but feels there must be more to it than just approaches to learning the concepts The conceptlearning a new name Or the new name may call up 'unstable' can be learned by a definition whichpartial or irrelevant concepts already in his mind Or includes all cases and excludes all others, but thesome of both Since all the teacher has to help him is concept 'untrustworthy' must be refined by trial andlanguage and imagination - a mass of concepts and error, with no certainty at the borderline, and someimages of his own - he needs to be able to reach up to sort of ideal type to compare each case with

a higher level of concept-making of his own, which

we call his understanding We saw that concepts often overlap, as with ship

and boat Another feature is that they may include, or

To say more about the learning of concepts we need be included in, other concepts For example

fishing-to take a look at the make-up of any concept or set of vessel, tug and passenger ferry all belong to theconcepts What are their features and how are the concept 'vessel', and each breaks down to morelevels related? specific concepts that we can have of, for example,

tuna boats, trawlers and shrimpers Concepts also tendWhenever a number of objects (ships, for example) to be included in ever more general ones, used to

in the 'real' world have something in common, we classify things Thus vessels are included in the conceptform a concept of them in our minds Not only objects 'vehicle', and vehicles belong in the even more generalare involved Activities like 'sport' and qualities like concept 'means oftransport' This last would include'strength' also lead us to form concepts Unless it is escalators as well as spaceships and mini-bulkers.nice and simple, like 'triangle', a concept usually

involves several common attributes A ship is designed The interesting thing about this hierarchy of

to float, but so is a buoy, so the concept 'ship' must concepts from the most particular to the most generalhave other attributes which the concept 'buoy' doesn't is that the intermediate ones seem the most importanthave This is obvious; so it will be obvious that one for efficient learning Once we have a good grasp of

the middling concept it is easier to work out finer thing on another (for example the dependence ofdiscriminations of the more specific kind, as well as to weight and momentum on mass); or a sequence, as inlearn to use the more general ones which lead to a sea states and wind force names; or there may be ahigher understanding of our subject and its wider checklist of related attributes from which concepts are

meteorology

Psychologists who have studied the learning of

concepts mainly agree that there is a sequence in which If you are impatient to get on to skills and the

a new concept is acquired The speed at which any practical things of life, you have our sympathy But ifone learner moves through the sequence varies a great you think that the idea of concepts is just an inventiondeal, but the sequence does not Most of the research of academics, recall the practical importance ofinvolves children of school age and younger, and we 'bending moment' and 'metacentric height' andcan reasonably assume that adults are much quicker 'position lines' All are pure concepts Understandingexcept where they have already formed some closely them cannot be delegated, as skills can, to computers.related or erroneous concept which makes it harder

The four stages are as follows First there is To be a good footballer you need to playa lot ofrecognition of an object, activity or quality as being football To be a good writer you need to be a goodseparate from its background or environment Thus reader Both skills need a lot of practice, but watching

an infant learns first that its mother is separate from football on TV will do little for your ability whereasthe rest of its surroundings, our ancestors saw that a reading good books will improve your writing So onceplanet moved differently from the stellar background, again there is no golden rule about learning, by whichand the hospitals notice an unexpected level of skin a teacher can avoid thinking hard about how best to

In the second stage of development the object, etc., What do we mean by 'skill'? Or should I ask "What

is recognised in a different environment, from a new are the defining attributes of the concept 'skill'?".angle or with a different sense - confirming its separate When I was a student of these matters our tutoridentity In the third stage several different objects are demonstrated his ability to sail a dinghy with one handrecognised as equivalent to the first - establishing a while rolling and lighting a cigarette with the other.group or class ('people' for the infant, planets, and We then had to write down what we thought was thewidespread concern about skin cancer in the Southern essence of 'skill'

Hemisphere) Finally we reach the formal stage of

setting out the attributes which allow correct Phrases like 'effortless control', 'ability to attendidentification of the members of this concept - or to more than one task', and 'mastery of tools' came toenabling us to distinguish it from other concepts mind When we thought more widely of other skills,(human faces and voices, planetary motion, and we became more general and we settled on three widerdepletion of the ozone layer - a concept which we have attributes These were effectiveness, flexibility, and

The most general description of this sequence is By effectiveness we meant that the particular skill

"From the particular to the general, from the concrete can be performed quickly (apparently without much

to the abstract, and from the known to the unknown" thought), accurately and with a degree of physical

economy The latter may give freedom to do otherOnly if a concept can be defined in terms which things at the same time, or the stamina to go on for athe learner already firmly understands, can the above long time The lower level of skill that we show duringsequence be cheerfully ignored A well-stated learning will be relatively clumsy, i.e less quick, ordefinition, with examples proceeding from easier to less accurate, or more tiring

more difficult, and a few non-examples if necessary

to illustrate the boundaries of the group, will secure Flexibility may be less obvious than effectivenesseffective learning in that case but in the end is just as important Inflexible standard

tests are often used to assess competence, for exampleNot only is it usually wise to start concept in car driving This is fair on candidates as well asdevelopment from concrete experience when possible, measuring a baseline of competence But in real lifebut adults can often be helped by being given an exactly the same problem only occurs twice in theoverview of how new concepts relate to one another most routine operations, and a skilled person is surelyThis may take the form of a hierarchy, as when dealing one who applies his skill effectively in new situations.with officers' responsibilities or the dependence of one This is often referred to under the head of 'Transfer of

Training', and is an ability where man - so far - seems This leads us to consider how we acquire skills.

to be still ahead of the machine The importance of feedback to the efficiency of the

learning process is dealt with at length in Chapter 1.The third feature, anticipation, is perhaps an We can certainly learn some skills without a trainingelement of flexibility Most skills are acted out in programme - most early learning (to walk, and todynamic situations, so there has to be a predictive speak, for example) lacks a programme, but there isaspect, foresight, which draws on the skilled person's plenty of feedback The outcomes (falling over orexperience and imagination Shiphandling involves getting a response to a noise) provide the feedbackthis to a high degree, as does the effectiveness of many and thus are more important than inputs However itmanagement skills Precise prediction contributes isn't long before imitation starts to be evident, andgreatly to the effective co-ordination of our actions, in inputs (which may be demonstrations or trainingboth space and time programmes) can assume the greater importance

Rewards, encouragement, disapproval and so onThe other approach to agreeing a concept of 'skill', provide the feedback for imitative learning

suggested earlier in this chapter, was by means of a

definition You will find several in various dictionaries When language develops (and with it, concepts!)and encyclopaedias One which calls up a picture very direct instruction in skills - telling how - can be addedlike the description of attributes is:- the capacity for to the earlier two methods which I shall call trial andcarrying out complex, well-organised patterns of error, and imitation Most adult training is somebehaviour smoothly and adaptively, so as to achieve combination of these three It is rarely obvious what

a goal or outcome This covers verbal and social skills mixture gives the best results in any particular case,

as well as physical tasks because trainees respond so differently This is also

dealt with in Chapter 1

Some authorities divide skills into three types

Perceptual skills are those with which we recognise Earlier it was suggested that the brain controls skillcomplex patterns (see Chapter 1) Then there are the development like an expert system that is improvedperceptual-motor skills in which the perceptual 'inputs' by training or practice Here are two more conceptsare coordinated with physical movements to produce which it pays you to distinguish Training involves a'outputs' Finally there are mental skills such as deliberate scheme to assist the learner It involves thereasoning More important than classifications of this trainer guiding the learner to make more satisfactorykind is to distinguish a skilled performance from a or effective actions, helps him to attend to thehabit, which it can resemble A habit lacks the appropriate feedback signals, encourages him andflexibility which was a feature of the true skill A habit evaluates his progress As skill improves the actionsmay be an essential small component of a skill, an become smoother or quicker (or whatever the skillautomatic response to a simple stimulus, but the full requires) and then the learner can focus more attentionskill will include the ability to over-ride that habit when on the significant feedback He thus takes charge ofcircumstances change in a way not anticipated his final development with the trainer having less

input We often use the term 'coach' for someoneSome theorists (who usually base their theory on shaping the higher development of skills, and that mayobservation of rats or pigeons) reject this distinction be appropriate for senior officers helping to sharpenand hold that all learned skills are chains of habitual their juniors' skills But in a world where IMOresponses, each triggering the next response As you minimum standards may represent the only levelaccumulate an ever-increasing 'bank' of these chains demanded, skill development in the years after

of responses the chance of meeting a new situation is certification will depend on officers knowing how todecreasing But when one leaves the laboratory the assess their own skills rather than leaving it to annumber of possible situations you can meet increases official trainer or assessor

hugely Then you have to match each situation to just

one of the numerous habits you have stored This is Practice may simply involve using the skill so far

an unconvincing picture of skill because the bigger acquired, however imperfect Improvement is notyour collection of habits the longer you will take to automatic Golfers will know what I mean Thechoose the right response; this is the opposite of what benefits of simple repetition are not guaranteed,

we experience - the more skilled you are, the faster especially when fatigue becomes stronger thanyour reaction is likely to be motivation This underlines the need for the learner,

and especially the lone learner attempting to improve

It seems much more likely that by practice our skills from a self-study course, to have learned enoughbrain develops a set of rules which in effect tell us about the guidance and feedback needed in his case.how to respond, or the response most likely to be Only then can he evaluate, modify, and so i!llproveappropriate on the information and experience his own performance

available to the brain - a sort of internal expert system

to which we go on adding by training or practice

Any analysis of a skill will show that it is made up To summarise, the trainer can be expected to be

of a collection of sub-skills which in turn may be more aware of the sub-skills which make up the skillbroken down until you get to those most basic to be learned, than is the ordinary practitioner Heelements described earlier as perceptual, perceptual- needs to recognise what mix of sequential andmotor, and mental skills Thus, to take an everyday simultaneous connections is involved He has toexample, making a cup of coffee might be reduced to choose the appropriate training approach for each sub-sub-skills such as pouring, handling a spoon, using skill or group of them - demonstration/imitation, trialelectric switches, measuring powder, and so on Using and error, or direct instruction

electric switches breaks down to recognising the

switch, coordinated movement to control it, knowing The assessor will be equally aware of the sub-skillswhen it is on or off, and so on All very obvious, you if he has to make a judgment of how far the learner ismay say Good It is the trainer's job to decide how to below a satisfactory performance, unless he is a finalput these elements together and to recognise where examiner and can simply view the full skill in orderthe overall performance is unsatisfactory because a to make his judgment

sub-skill has not been learned well, or is not being

integrated with other sub-skills There is one other opportunity for the lone learner

to keep some of his skills sharper than might be theIntegrated? There are essentially three structures case if he has no chance either to be trained or towhich govern the connection of sub-skills - and hence practise Ocean-going watchkeepers of a serious turnthe training strategy needed and the assessment of mind (and, no doubt, their seniors) ask themselvespossibilities Simplest is the straight sequence, such as questions beginning "What if ?" to try to keep the

we use in making the cup of coffee; there may be more necessary actions fresh in their minds should somethan one possible sequence, and the trainer might emergency arise This mental rehearsal can be farjudge that one is easier to learn, or is the custom on more wide-ranging and frequent than drills Thethat ship Then the learner can master each sub-skill, disadvantage, of course, is the absence of feedback!and then learn the rule for the sequence After that,

guided "practice makes perfect", and the rule is If we seem to have become repetitive about thesomehow absorbed into the subconscious, somewhere importance of clear, timely and well-focused feedback

in the brain, and controls the smooth performance it is as a result of experience Anyone going in for

we recognise as 'skilled' teaching, or even a bit of helpful instruction of their

juniors, quickly finds that it is not until you try teachingThe second structure of sub-skills involves using a subject or skill that you discover how much or howthem simultaneously Occasionally it is only physically little you understand it, whatever your qualifications.possible to learn them simultaneously; for example This discovery, too, is the result of feedback - fromwhen starting to ride a bicycle The skills to control those you are trying to teach

motion, balance and steering are connected in such a

way that learning anyone of them separately does Competence

not help and can hinder progress These are the kind

of circumstances in which the trainer is reduced to I do not know if any maritime administration hasurging the learner to "Have a go! You'll soon get the defined competence, but if so I hope it is a definitionidea/knack" It is 'Trial and error' on a big scale To helpful to those who use it 'Competence is theget the measure of it, just try to write a brief manual possession of the skills and knowledge required for

on how to ride a bike Or how to throw a heaving line the award of a Certificate of Competency' doesn't help

have learned what the words stand for InterpretationMore often a skill breaks down into some elements is a never-ending business of their's andwhich have to be performed simultaneously and some administrations as they keep pace with the technical

in sequence For example, in measuring a sextant advances and legal changes which take place in thealtitude at twilight there is a sequence of sub-skills industries they serve or regulate

concerned with preparing the instrument, and locating

the star Bringing it down to the horizon, and At sea, competence is more likely to be defined asdetermining the exact altitude, though following the a capacity to do a job efficiently in any circumstancessequence, each involve the co-ordination of two sub- likely to arise There are many reasons why these twoskills (large and small adjustments to the instrument definitions differ, not least that they refer to quitewhile holding the image in place) These are different concepts Men of goodwill have alwayssimultaneous perceptual and perceptual-motor skills wanted to keep the practical effect of these differencesThen there is another simultaneous pair, perceptual- as small as possible, and reform of the means ofmotor and mental, as you weave your way back to attaining and assessing competence is thus a recurrentthe chronometer in the gloom while counting the feature in the modern history of seafaring

In general terms administrations want a limited

number of certificates to be valid in a very wide range

of ships and trades, and for a long time Good

shipowners are happy to add their own special

requirements, bad ones are only interested in manning

Shipmates expect to be able to sleep soundly at night,

after being relieved on time The attitudes of individual

seafarers vary, but probably most see competence

exams as hurdles to be cleared on the path to

promotion Many experienced ones

have stories to tell which suggest that their competence

wasn't finally tested until they were in the job they

had already been qualified for A small number have

been involved in inquiries which found them to be

incompetent despite having a Certificate

If we focus on the concepts of competence which

an administration and a good serving master might

have, what will be the common attributes, and what

the significant differences?

There would surely be a large measure of

agreement about a collection of skills and

underpinning technical knowledge at a level

appropriate for the job in question The needs of the

ship as an operating unit could be agreed in a large

number of respects, especially relating to safe

navigation (I am only thinking of the deck functions)

The two concepts of competence will diverge at

some points The shipmaster will tend to make some

allowance for experience, expecting more or less

competence according to age and background, while

the administration simply sets a minimum standard

for all Administrations allow successful candidates to

display evidence that they may be incompetent For

example they may set a 70% pass mark This implies

that a Certificate of Competency can be awarded to

someone who gets 30% of their stability and navigation

calculations wrong! A shipmaster would take this as

evidence, if displayed at sea, that they are NOT

competent This difference reflects the different

assessment methods employed

It is inevitable that administrations will only update

the syllabus, or list of knowledge and skills, at intervals

so that the master of a modern ship will find some of

it out of date as a portfolio for current competence

This will be exaggerated if shore-based assessors

cannot keep in touch with changing conditions at sea

The shipmaster may also have limited sympathy with

the idea that his officers are expected to be competent

on other types of ship, of which neither he nor they

have experience

A second dimension of competence involves

personal attributes and professional values

Administrations may make an attempt to assess a

candidate's qualities, attitudes and motivation as they

The third aspect of competence, which overlapswith the first two and may be conceived differently

by shipmasters and administrations, concerns the ship

as a social unit Senior competency examinations paysome attention to management and leadershipknowledge The weight to be given to knowledge isoften a matter of dispute, but the importance of skills

is not Leadership styles differ, as do reactions to them,but the importance of effective management to theefficiency of safe operation on board can hardly bedoubted This is true at all levels but it is rarely assessedformally except at the higher levels, if then

This is not altogether surprising because it is in thesocial context that tensions about the conception ofcompetence are most likely to arise For example, thenewly appointed officer, arriving from a Certificate

or refresher course, may find that 'the way we do things

on this ship', and the letter of the latest regulation, donot exactly coincide At once, there is a tensionbetween conformity and professional or personalintegrity which will require social skills to resolve.The fourth area in which the concepts ofcompetence differ is in the modes of judgment used

by administrations and shipmasters Examiners likeprecise and reasonably simple questions with which

to test candidates, and thereby produce fair tests inthe sense that each candidate starts from the sameplace, however unrealistic that might be Real life atsea is a place of probabilities, approximations andsome unknown quantities, and it is in thosesurroundings that the shipmaster makes his assessment

to raising standards in maritime training, either at sea

or in shoreside institutions What makes a competent What else can we say of competent teachers?trainer or lecturer? Different styles of teaching appeal to different sorts of

learners There are extremes along the range ofDraw on your own experience as a trainee and methods, from the autocrat who makes the learner dostudent Among the attributes you would expect a nearly all the learning, to the instructor who nevercompetent teacher to possess would be superior stops talking But a competent teacher who is going toknowledge and greater skill than those you sought to be effective with a variety of people learning a varietyachieve Two exceptions to this general idea might of subjects and skills is certain to need to have a varietysuggest themselves There might be some obscure area of skills himself

of operations - heavy lifts, or a very recent piece of

software, for example - where the competent teacher Above all he has to be a good communicator Mostwill not pretend to know all, and will draw on other of us would like him to show positive attitudes aboutsources, including other students in a class, or other the value of what he is teaching, with flashes ofshipmates, to help learning enthusiasm, and seriousness of purpose, flavoured with

humour and illustrated with relevant anecdotes MostThe second exception relates to the highest levels learners find these things helpful to their motivation

of skill and understanding At most levels you expect But they must also be encouraged to reflect upon theirthe teacher to be better at doing a task than the trainee own experience - or what is sea service for?

But at the highest level the ambition of the competent

teacher is that his best students will actually perform Readers who studied Chapter 1, on the concept of

better than he Or she Coaches in sport are generally learning, may see that the concept of a competentNOT as competent as the best performers; they offer teacher can be derived from thinking about learning.other insights, motivation and a wealth of learning The competent teacher brings about the desiredfrom the experience of others Likewise there are learning effectively and efficiently The two ideas arecompetent trainers who can help practical men to inseparable We hope you enjoy proving this forperform better than they yourself Let the last word go to a Skipper, Mr

Humphrey Bogart of the 'African Queen' "AWere it not so, the standards would be forever professional is one who can give his best performancesliding down This is in contrast to teaching knowledge, when he doesn't feel like it." Yet another angle.where scholars, researchers and practitioners are all

adding to what is known and can be passed on to the

next generation

Chapter THREE GROUP LEARNING AND TRAINING TECHNIQUES

compiled by Mr Robert L Tallack BSc FNI

on behalf of Northstar Maritime and Environmental Consultancy

in association with Hill Tallack

-already Continuous Professional Development (CPD)Training outside the more formal environment of a is well established in many of the professions.nautical college has always been a feature of maritime

education It has ranged from cadet training ships However effective self study and self studythrough such informal activities as the noon sight techniques become, at some stage within the learningunder the watchful eye of the navigating officer, to an process it is still necessary for there to be humanincreasing onboard delivery by personnel officers, interaction At one end of the scale this may be a onecollege lecturers and consultants as companies to one student - tutor relationship or traditionalendeavour to get more 'sea miles' from their trainees classroom based teaching and it also includes seminars

Italso, critically, includes emergency drills - although and conferences Group training is also an importantthis is far too infrequently realised part of this process and it is part of the trainer's, or the

personnel or training manager's responsibility toThis chapter is designed to focus attention on some decide which is the most effective learning process in

of the questions which need to be asked when planning order to achieve a desired training outcome

group training activities and to highlight some of the

techniques which may help 'non-professional' trainers Cost, inevitably, is one of the first factors to bedeliver more effectively considered Itis easy to be driven by 'what is cheapest?'

often dressed up to sound like 'what is more

best I can buy with the allocated funds within my'Why group training?' must be one of the first questions budget?' This immediately raises the question of what

a prospective trainer should ask Is group training is the desired outcome; is it to achieve a well trainedbetter than the alternatives? and well motivated crew or is it to meet irksome

statutory requirements?

Today the trend is to offer people a range of options

for learning This to a great extent derives from the Generally speaking, group training is mostability of modern technology to package and transmit beneficial when:

information, which has led to the development of

Learning Resource Centres within companies - and • Practical activities have to be demonstrated orsimilar facilities will appear increasingly on board practised (and competency based learning placesThese offer individuals the option of self study through great emphasis on the ability to demonstratetext, multimedia and video The emphasis is capability); and

increasingly on encouraging people to own and • There is a benefit to be gained from sharing themanage their own development with companies experience of other participants (and, possibly,offering a range of alternative ways for people other companies or other industries)

or for What?

• Developing behavioural based interpersonal skills This also has two aspects What is the subject matter,(e.g crisis management training such as crowd both in terms of the core training objective as well ascontrol) in terms of scope and what are the desired outcomes?

• Facilitating team building and management

development Inindustry, which is turning increasingly towards

• Reinforcing company values and company competency based learning and assessment, as

• Enhancing product knowledge of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW)

Convention and, within the United Kingdom, National

If the subject matter has a high academic or (and Scottish) Vocational Qualifications (S/NVQs) itintellectual content, some preliminary formal teaching is important to have a measure of the effectiveness of

or individual study will improve the training outcome training Again within the United Kingdom, theAlso, as more students study individually to develop Training and Development Lead Body (TDLB) hastheir underpinning knowledge (UPK) along the route established base line standards for training Although

to competency based qualifications, an element of these standards have been developed in support ofgroup training will play an important role in the implementation of S/NVQs, they are a usefulreinforcing and bolstering the acquired knowledge and starting point

in linking it to the associated skills

The starting point is a growing acceptance that

measured solely on their theoretical knowledge norBoth these questions also require early consideration on their possession of skills; nor even on their abilityDelivered in the wrong environment, at the wrong to undertake a range of different activities It is theirtime, much of the investment in training sessions can performance and not the process people go through

be wasted As the organiser of the training, it is easy to achieve those outcomes which should be the basis

to view these questions from the provider's for measurement

perspective 'When is it convenient for me to organise

or deliver this training?' rather than 'when and where Competence based learning and NVQs arecan I gather the largest number in a receptive mood discussed in more detail elsewhere in the book; theand in a (learning) conducive environment?' first important point for the trainer is to identify very

clearly the desired training outcomes While this fixes

also needs establishing It is important to have anBoth who is going to be trained and who is to deliver accurate, or as accurate as possible, picture of the levelthe training? Should the training be company based of knowledge of the candidates at the beginning of

or would the participants benefit from interaction with the session This may need some research by theother organisations, either within or outside shipping? trainer which might be documentary, by use of aCertainly at management level there is a degree of questionnaire or by talking to the candidates

benefit from cross fertilisation with other cultures The

span of participants also needs careful consideration With this knowledge, it is possible to prepare the

- at what level is the training to be pitched and can 'passage plan' , taking into account such navigationaldifferent levels be run concurrently? hazards as language and/or cultural differences,

company cultures and personal expectations.'Who?' also refers to the question of who is to Preparation and presentation are now the two areasdeliver the training Specialist knowledge of the subject on which the trainer must concentrate - as frequently

is only part of the specification of a trainer and in stated; Proper Planning Prevents Poor Performance.training as opposed to teaching, it can be argued that

it is not the most important The ability to deliver in a How?

way in which the subject matter is understood,

reinforced and remembered can be more important How does the trainer prepare for the course delivery,

- especially if it leaves a thirst for more knowledge how can it be made interesting and stimulating, howThe amount of preparation time should never be can the trainer get across the main training points in aoverlooked - the busy personnel manager or way that will be remembered (and used) and, finally,superintendent, who rushes on board to deliver an how is the effectiveness of the group trainingimportant message without proper preparation does monitored and assessed?

himself, his company and theJecipients a grave

disservice

A golden rule of training is that the objective is thoroughly rehearsed and the overall delivery pacednot just to impart your knowledge or information to to take into account attention span The group shouldthe participants but to enable them to use that be involved as early as possible and, if possible workknowledge or information effectively in their on the basis of the group participating 75 per cent ofworkplace (to the overall benefit of the organisation) the time and the trainer talking only 25 per cent of

the time

This is sometimes called the learning bridge which,

for the facilitator spans the gap between theory and The trainer must

practice while for the learner it must provide a bridge • Get commitment - dress smartly as a complimentbetween group experience and real world experience to the trainees, be positive and pleasant in style andThus, the trainer or facilitator should be thinking about behaviour

relevant, meaningful, useful, about, for how long and using what approach

significant, realistic, usable, • Establish eye contact - this is the way in which to

helpful, control the group! Use the lighthouse effect - workand above all, around the group, focus on each person in turn for

interesting. a few seconds Do not focus on one person or the

middle distance, as they will focus on the middle

• When answering questions, look at the questionerThe trainer must have an understanding of how people 25% of the time and the audience for 75% of thelearn as well as of his subject The route to the mind is time

through the five senses: • A trainer may sit for a general discussion, but should

stand to deliver important points - this makes more

• Sight - the most important as far as learning is impact

concerned and the most difficult to 'switch off' If • Summarise frequently and always before movingnot given something upon which to focus, the eyes to a new topic - a visual aid (sight) might help, orwill find something and the trainees' attention may involve the group (doing - a close relation of

• Hearing - it is far too easy to talk and assume that • Keep a careful track of time and monitorthe trainee is following and will remember Standard concentration and energy levels (Remember, theresearch indicates that lecture hall students will have passage plan is the guide, it is (generally) drawnforgotten 75% of what they have been told within eradicably on the chart)

• Touch - a very important sense, to be used starting; be confident about the introduction If thewhenever possible, especially in workshop sessions trainer loses his or her way, control must be kept -People learn best by doing it is not a disaster to ask 'Where was I?' (involvement

• Taste and smell - generally have a limited - doing)

application • Use short words and short sentences Choose the

active verb rather than the passive and concrete

In a classroom, it is generally found that 75% of examples rather than abstract Use examples butwhat is learnt is absorbed through sight and only 25% avoid jargon (or explain it)

through hearing, whilst in workshops hearing drops • Use pauses and silence - it rarely sounds as long toeven lower and the main sensory perception is touch an audience as it does to the speaker The voiceThe overall importance of sight, however, should not should be on an upward inflection at the end oflead to the phenomenon known as death by overhead sentences and reading from a script avoided.(or the computer age equivalent of paralysis by • Use gestures - they give focus for the eyes and

fiddling Stand confidently with an upright posture;Understanding is related to concentration, not only • Get people nodding (in agreement, not off) and askthe ability to receive information but also to retain it questions, even if an answer is not neededTrainers need to plan for the immutable fact that levels (participation and 'doing')

of concentration will rise and fall during a training • Assess as quickly as possible the nature of varioussession and be alert to the need to change tempo or trainees and be ready to intervene quickly ifpitch to rekindle attention and achieve understanding difficulties arise with people that might affect the

group's progress or enjoyment

First impressions count - the trainer is stepping

on to centre stage The first 30 seconds must be used The ability to deal with difficult or uncooperative

to grab people's attention The introduction must be people is another skill which the trainer must address

'The Know-All' comments too often, frustrates - For larger groups (15+), try arranging seats inothers and discourages colleagues from participating clusters of four or five around tables.

If the group doesn't correct the 'know-all' then you - Arrive in plenty of time to ensure that themust intervene Try a summarising comment and a required facilities are as ordered (coffee and tea,direct question like 'That's an extremely good point, meals, heads, syndicate rooms etc.) It is also anow let's hear some other thoughts' good idea to check how to increase ventilation

or reduce the level of central heating

'The Rambler' gets off the points easily and gets • The equipment, which may include:

lost before reaching the point of what he/she is trying Overhead projector with or without computer

to say Intervene as soon as the person stops for breath, projection capabilities

thank them, restate the objective and move on - Screen

- Flip chart or white boards

'The Confused' has difficulty in expressing his/her - Camcorder

thoughts You can help by listening and summarising TV monitor and video

the person's ideas for instance, 'So what you're saying - Stationery supplies, including markers (and

forgotten), pins and blue-tack, extension leads'The Silent Contributor' says nothing You should and so on

try and discover why Is he/she bored/shy/insecure/

new or does he/she have a language difficulty? Try Too frequently visual aids are used as the trainingthe following techniques - session with the trainer acting as a commentator,

• Ask a question that you're certain the person can repeating the bullet points on an endless series of

• Ask for his/her opinion on views expressed by that overheads can now be faded in or out from allcolleagues points of the compass does not necessarily enhance

the training content

'The Stubborn Type' sticks to his own views and

won't see the point of fellow group members Say Visual aids should enhance the talk rather thansomething like 'I'm sure you have good reasons for acting as something to hide behind; the trainer's talkyour point of view, but it's important to listen to your should be able to stand on its own, with the visualscolleagues' viewpoints as well.' conveying and reinforcing facts, statistics and ideas

Preparation and the use of visual aids Flip charts, although not 'high-tech', are a valuable

tool since they are flexible and can invite participationNot surprisingly, preparation is the essential ingredient from the group They can provide:

for successful training and this incorporates both • A focus and reference point for the group

planning and skill The skill, the knowledge and/or· A focus for group/syndicate activity

capabilities which the trainer wishes to impart, depend • A storyboard for the training session

not only on knowledge (or research) but crucially, on • A quick way of capturing ideas

the ability to identify and focus on the training

outcomes which are the objectives When using a flip chart to take feedback;

• Take up a position on the left (if right handed) toThe planning, how to deliver the training and what maintain eye contact with the group

equipment is required, is an area which frequently • Write up headline points or key words only.needs more time than is usually allocated for these • Use the participants words to emphasise theiractivities As well as the trainer being prepared, importance

preparations should include:

When using a flip chart as part of the delivery:

• The participants or trainees • Underline titles, keep to three key points per page

- Give at least 10 days' notice of a formal training and a maximum of two colours

Brief in advance: dates, times, venue, help locate the place and reminder notes may beprogramme title, purpose faintly pencilled in

- Provide pre-course reading or activities if • With modern glues, notes may be stuck on to make

_ Choose an informal seating arrangement - use • The trainer's back should never be turned on the

a'u'shape for small groups audience

Avoid chairs in a row

Overhead projectors (OHPs) Participation activities include:

• Role play

Overhead transparencies are flexible but again, • Case studies

effective use requires adherence to a few simple rules • Simulation exercises

• Discussion groups

• Ensure that enough time is left to check that the • Breakout groups

transparencies are in the right order, that the OHP • Brainstorming

works (and has a spare bulb), is in focus and projects • Training videos

on to the screen without overmuch distortion or

without blocking the group's view Using different training techniques

• Landscape is generally better than portrait; favour

the upper two thirds and use a maximum of 7 lines Role play

and 6 words per line

• Leave the transparency on the screen long enough Acting out roles enables people to learn without risk(at least 15 seconds) for participants to absorb the in a simulated and safe situation as well asmessage consolidating a skill or reinforcing key training points

• If making a number of points reveal them one by

• There is a fine balance between forever switching strengths and needs, particularly in terms of theirthe projector on and off and leaving a blank white behaviour It also helps their approach to people andscreen or overhead not relevant to the current part how to deal with differing attitudes, and putting the

of the lecture - think about how to manage this theory into practice improves their skill and shows

• Do not photocopy small print on to an overhead them how to manage situations in which they mightand then apologise that no-one will be able to read later find themselves

it Rather hand out photocopies at the start of the

session - or at the relevant point within the session; This involves a three step process:

the activity can be useful to rekindle attention

• Tell the group if they are going to be provided with 1 Setting up a situation and then asking two or threecopies of the 0 HPs at the beginning of the session, people to handle it as they think appropriate.not half way through 2 The rest of the group or specific people may act as

observers

Camcorders and video 3 Discussing and evaluating what happens after the

role play has ended

Camcorders for video feedback can be a valuable tool

for reinforcing the training points It is a 'hands on' Types of role play

activity and thus a powerful aid However:

• Carefully plan how the activity will fit into the A typical role play might sketch out a simple situation

• Remember that it is a time consuming activity - it in a 'Managing Meetings' session, the trainer mighttakes double the time to record and play back say:

• Get sound, practical knowledge of the equipment

before using it and practice 'Imagine you have just joined a ship and your head of

• Plan how to stage the activity and decide whether department asks you to chair a meeting you've never attended

to play back the whole of the recording or edited before - you're being asked to undertake this task with no

highlights preparation How would you reply assertively?'

• Do not get over enthusiastic with the zoom facility

or pan the camcorder right and left too much unless At the other end of the scale, role playing can bereally accomplished and remember that sound is quite complex providing individuals with specificalso being recorded; the microphone must be briefs and covering, for instance, bridge management.carefully positioned

Four common approaches to role play are:The effectiveness of a group training session can

be enhanced by the creative use of the training aids • Informal role play involving two or three peoplementioned above and also by the skilful use of and acted out spontaneously

participation activities Remember that people learn • Struc~red r~le plays where players learn and followmore by 'doing' than by listening and a general rule is a specIfic bnef

75% involvement against only 25% talking by the • Multiple role plays where the whole trammg group

mem ers to e SImu taneous y mvo ve enac mgout the roles

• Reversed role playing - players exchange roles to the simulation exercise and equipment are appropriatehelp them appreciate the other person's point of and as realistic as possible and the reason for a

Before the role play, the objectives for the role play During the candidate's demonstration of hismust be explained After asking for volunteers and competence, the assessor should be as unobtrusive asselecting the role players, the trainer should issue the possible, intervening only for matters of safety or ifrole play brief verbally or in writing After the the assessor's and the candidate's understanding ofobservers have been briefed and the importance of the assessment requirements are obviously radicallytheir role has been emphasised, any observer sheets different On the completion of the demonstration ofare distributed and the camera operator (if used) is competence, the assessor then tests the candidatesbriefed on what to capture The trainer must be clear underpinning knowledge using a list of prepared (andabout when the role play should end if necessary, supplementary) questions and these

questions should take into account those aspects ofDuring the role play the interaction must be the range statements which the simulation exerciseobserved, discussion points pinpointed for later, and has not been able to address directly

any video tape sequence numbers or key points noted

simulation exercise, whether for assessment or generalAfterwards, the trainer should thank everyone and training, the trainer/assessor must have a clearask the observers to complete feedback forms When understanding of the concepts and principlesthe role players have noted down their thoughts, the underpinning the exercise and how this particularlead role player is asked to comment and then the exercise will help to achieve the objectives of theobservers and finally the trainer should offer his or course/session The trainer should practise using theher own comments and insights If the role play has exercise before the session and then make sure thebeen videoed, the whole video can be played or group undertaking the exercise is briefed very carefullyhighlights of the role play used to illustrate important and has a clear understanding of its purpose Thepoints The trainer should ensure that the observer exercise must be carefully planned and staged ensuringfeedback focuses on strengths as well as areas for sufficient resources and time are allocated to it.improvement and the key learning points must then

playa key role in helping the group understand howSimulation exercises they have worked to complete the task The

experience of those taking part can be drawn on butSimulation exercises are particularly valuable in personal observations and insights should be kept untilhelping students translate theory into practice ("see/ the end

hear" to "dolfeel") They also have an essential role

when there is either an element of danger or Leading a discussion

significantly high cost involved in the subject matter

being taught In a simulation exercise, it is generally A typical management training programme involvesthe process of doing the task that is important rather a number of discussion sessions

than the background theory and so the selected task

should be something relatively straightforward The Discussion leading is particularly appropriate fortheory and implications are better covered in handling the implications of a training activity.associated discussion groups Concepts, principles and their application to work can

be considered and possible solutions evaluated after

A particularly important dimension of simulation analysis of the issues and problems It is also invaluableexercises is their role within the vocational training for feedback after a training activity

process In setting up simulation exercises for

vocational assessment, particular attention must be The trainer's role is to develop people'spaid to the performance criteria and the range understanding of the subject by helping them to thinkstatement related to the element under assessment it through and relate their experience to that of othersThe assessment must be carefully planned and in the group

recorded if it is to meet the quality requirements of

the Y.Q system An opening interview between the When conducting a discussion as a lead into anassessor and the candidate ensures that both are clear activity or as a result of an activity the trainer shouldabout the task and the desired outcome as well as the decide the purpose of the discussion and how it couldtime and place of the assessment and the equipment contribute to the overall objectives of the session A

to be used The assessor also has a duty to ensure that discussion framework must be developed, for instance,

how much time should be devoted to the discussion Breakout groups are particularly appropriate forand what headings to use in discussing the topic These preparation before a general group discussion Theyheadings can be prepared as questions: allow different aspects of a subject to be reviewed and

should be used when contributions from younger or

1 What is passage planning? quieter group members need to be encouraged, or a

2 Why do we plan? degree of competitiveness is required or people would

3 What are the skills required for passage planning? benefit from closer contact with a trainer/facilitator

If the group is empowered to solve a problem or reach

It can be useful to chart the discussion topics on a a decision without support, then breakout groups mayflipchart to give both the trainer and the group a focus be the answer

When managing a discussion, the three important skills

groups are:

• Ask questions

status, personality

Open questions must be asked to provoke thought • Size and number of groups

and discussion, for example 'Why is passage planning • Number of tutors/facilitators available

an important tool in operational management? not 'Do • Group knowledge of subject

you think passage planning is ' The questions must

be framed in an encouraging way and never used for There are many benefits of breakout groups Theytrapping or belittlement The questions must link ideas allow more opportunities for quieter people to

in the session and answers should be used to frame contribute in a more informal atmosphere with morethe following question chance of individual participation More can be

covered in the same time if breakout groups haveWhile listening, the trainer should be able to different briefs Members tend to accept their ownparaphrase his or her understanding of a contribution, findings, and these groups create movement,while noting down important points and also looking discussion and team spirit, helping to identify strengths

at the contributors and weaknesses and providing a powerful aid to team

building

Each section should be summarised at the

appropriate time 'So what we are saying is that passage The disadvantages of breakout groups are that they

planning is ' The summary points should be listed provide a danger of disagreements, with fewer

on a flipchart and the whole discussion summarised opinions to discuss and some members may be

at the end excluded if there is a dominant character who tries to

take over It is important to watch the timings veryFor successful handling of the discussion, the trainer carefully If participants have not been well briefed, amust ensure that people's contributions are relevant great deal of time can be wasted, and they also require

to the discussion topic by clarifying understanding of more resources, in the way of space and facilitators.each contribution before continuing Since everyone

should have the opportunity to contribute no During the break out activities progress should becontribution should be squashed and the 'silent' checked at frequent intervals and time checks given.contributors should be encouraged The trainer should provide encouragement, assistance

or clarification if groups are floundering and ensureWhen reviewing the discussion, the trainer should that feedback points have been collated properly in

• How well did I achieve my objective? During the feedback session the trainer must ask

• Was my discussion plan logical? breakout groups to choose a spokesperson to present

• Did my approach suit the group? their feedback Where groups have been doing the

• Did everyone have an opportunity to contribute? same task, the spokesperson from group one should

• Did I summarise at the appropriate points? be asked to feedback and subsequent groups should

then add any new ideas or angles, thus avoiding

Breakout groups unnecessary repetition

There are times in a training programme when it may Groups should always be praised and thanked for

be a good idea to reduce the size of the group to their contributions and the spokesperson singled outachieve the specific training objective or activity for a special word of thanks To draw the feedback

session to a positive conclusion, the trainer should Using training videos

summarise the key learning points which have

stimulate learning, increase enjoyment and enhance

Conducting a brainstorming session the message

Brainstorming can be used to generate many ideas in If used as part of a structured training programme,

a short space of time and can be effectively used as training videos can help to reinforce a message throughpart of a training session, course, or management visualisation, humour and drama They help to set anmeeting The activity is also a key element of hazard example and model behaviour and vary the tone andidentification within risk management pace of the training They can be used to introduce or

summarise a topic or activity and to stimulate thoughtBefore starting the session, the trainer can get the and discussion If shown in clips or segmentsparticipants to start thinking creatively as individuals interspersed with activities and discussions they can

by, for example, asking them to undertake a couple be a particularly powerful tool

of short brain-teaser activities such as listing ten uses

for a paperclip, in 45 seconds Then the rules for When using a training video, the trainer shouldbrainstorming should be put up and explained have a clear purpose in mind and understand why it

is being shown and how it will contribute to the overallThe participants should then be asked to list on a objectives of the programme or activity A trainingflipchart as many ideas as possible on, for example video should be chosen which is both relevant and up'how to improve emergency training and drills' People to date - no videos for the sake of videos or as an easyshould call out ideas and write them up furiously The 'filler' It should be previewed to assess its content andaim could be to reach 50 ideas in ten minutes The comprehensive notes should be made - key trainingideas can be way out and crazy; they do not need to points, story line, possible stop points and so on

be feasible at this stage A prize can be given to the

person who comes up with the most ideas, and another The trainer should decide when it should be used

to the person who raises the most laughs - as an introduction or summary or to spark discussion

or to support an activity and the trainer's supportAfter this the serious business should begin The material which often accompanies the video shouldlists should be gone through a second time and the be carefully studied At the end of the session, theteam should 'star' any particular ideas that appeal effectiveness of the video should be reviewed.These 'starred' ideas can be recorded on a flip chart or

wallboard, but no discussion at this stage Evaluating the training

Next, the 'star' ideas should be evaluated into three Evaluation is such a critical aspect of training that itcategories, numbered as follows: should always be planned at the same time as the

programme itself

1 Possible

The second and third categories should be • The type of training, for example is it a short skillschallenged as no idea should be dismissed session or a series of management developmentprematurely Next groups should be formed and a list modules?

of 5 ideas produced from the first category which the • The timing of training, for example will the trainingparticipants are keen to pursue Individual team take one hour, one day, one week or will it bemembers should then commit to championing each developed as a series of modules over six months?idea through to implementation • The level of training, for example is the training

designed foe senior managers, middle managers,The key to brainstorming is to get the team to think supervisors?

freely and to produce as many ideas as possible The • The specified training need, for example is it to fillevaluation process should always be left to the end a gap in the learning, knowledge, skill, attitude or

The purpose is to get people to have a 'can do' mindset, is it perhaps to bridge a business need?

not a 'wouldn't worR, 'can't do' one.

The purpose of evaluation is generally to improveEncouraging a team to think in a free-wheeling, the quality of training, considering aspects such asbrainstorming way will spark creative ideas and make trainer delivery, methods, length, content; to assesstraining or meetings more fun the effectiveness of the overall programme, to justify

the programme (do the benefits outweigh the costs?), absorb questions and consider the answers Timeand to justify the role of training must be set aside for completion of a questionnaire,

normally as part of the programme summary Thetrainer should decide whether questionnairesshould be completed anonymously or not Peopleare often more honest if they are anonymous The

F h I, trainer should also explain the purpose of the

f th questionnaIre to gauge reactIOns for Improvmg

uture programmes

Evaluation at learning level

Focuses on what the learner'shave learned by the end of the Purpose - to establish, with reference to the statedprogramme learning objectives, what the learner has learned

by the end of the programme session

Focuses on measuring the effects Benefits - it provides an objective assessment of how

of training on the learner's job well the learning objectives have been met It reliesperformance upon the formulation of well defined learning

objectives at the outset

Focuses on measuring the effects Issues - learning outcomes cannot be measured

on organisational performance objectively if objectives are loose and not defined

in behavioural terms

Who carries it out? - learner and trainer

Figure3.7 The evaluation chain Timing -learning level evaluation takes place during

the training event It provides feedback on thetraining process and the individual's training needs

Evaluation at reaction level Methods - there are three types of learning to be

evaluated Firstly knowledge based learning ismostlyPurpose - to determine the learner's enjoyment, i.e evaluated through simple questionnaires, multiple-how they think or feel about the training choice questionnaires and open endedprogramme questionnaires It is difficult to assess as a discreet

area as it is usually integrated with skills

Benefits - it provides an opportunity for learners to

comment directly on the quality of training Secondly skills based learning isbest assessed throughProvides the trainer with feedback to improve the observation, for example role play of a mockeffectiveness of future courses for other learners coaching session or meeting using trained observers.Simple to administer at low cost

Thirdly attitude based learning isparticularly difficultIssues - scepticism about its usefulness beyond the to evaluate and can involve quite complextraining programme and its effects on improved job measurement techniques Attitude is best measuredperformance where changed behaviours will operate, i.e in the

workplace

Who carries it out? - learners and trainers

Process - design the evaluation when developing theMethods - usually learners and sometimes trainers programme and deciding upon the programmecomplete self assessment questionnaires, commonly outcomes It is these outcomes that your evaluationcalled 'happy sheets' Can also include informal will seek to measure Explain the purpose of theobservation, discussion and highly structured evaluation to learners at the start of the programme.questionnaires for management training Then explain, if appropriate, how the evaluation

will be fed back Finally ensure that anyTiming - most often carried out at the end of a training questionnaires used are well constructed and easyprogramme / session / module to understand

Process - questionnaires should be handed out at the

start of the programme to allow learners time to

Evaluation at job performance level Issues - this level of evaluation can be difficult and

time consuming since performance is dependentPurpose - to measure the effects of training on the on many factors other than training You need tolearner's job performance take a realistic view of what can be assessed.Benefits - it assesses how well the learning - knowledge, Who is involved? - trainers, line managers, seniorskills and attitudes - have been applied at work and management and others, such as human resources

is therefore a most critical and valuable stage

Process - identify the key organisation performanceIssues - this level of evaluation is frequently the least indicators at the training needs analysis stage Forwell planned and conducted Its effectiveness is example, for a safety managing programme,dependent upon the training needs analysis being performance indicators might include accidentproperly conducted at the outset statistics, claims record, staff generated safety

initiatives and the willingness to report 'near miss'Who carries it out? - it can involve the learner, the occurrences under a 'no blame' culture

learner's manager or an external assessor such as

an NVQ assessor Decide how long the training will take to affect the

indicator For example, a management programmeMethods - most common methods are that the learner which explores goal setting, coaching and feedbackself-assesses or that the manager assesses learners may take several months to impact on theeither through: performance criteria It is also important at this stage

to identify any other factors which might impact

• Observation - formal, informal on the results

• Self-completed questionnaires

• Interviews one to one, by telephone or group Set up systems to maintain the results and allocateinterviews responsibilities for tracking the evaluation

Process - select candidates for programmes according Conclusion

to their needs Ensure a pre-course briefing takes

place between the delegate and the manager to Group training has an important role to playas partdiscuss the objectives and purpose of the training of a range of training and educational options whichNext, ensure that a post course debriefing is held are increasingly being owned and managed by the

as soon after the course as possible between delegate student This puts the trainer in the role of providerand manager to discuss immediately reactions to and facilitator

the training and further action or support as

required Lastly carry out job performance At the other end of the spectrum are those events,evaluation in the work place after an appropriate such as statutory drills, which should and could betime when the person's application of what he/she valuable training sessions (and not just "Board of Tradelearnt is assessed sports") Whether they are depends very much upon

the energy and enthusiasm of those in charge Training

Evaluation at organisationallevel can be as stimulating and satisfying for the trainer as

it should be for the student if the trainer is clear aboutPurpose - to assess the contribution the training has the desired outcomes, chooses the right mix of aidsmade to the performance of the department! and techniques and starts preparation in plenty of time.organisation

Benefits - the ultimate justification that training is

effective in contributing to business performance

Chapter FOUR THE PREPARATION OF A LECfURE

by Elaine Ives BSc FRMetS and John McEnaney BA MNI

A graduate of the University of Edinburgh, Elaine Ives holds a Teaching Q,ualification in Further Education from the Jordanhill Campus of the University of Strathclyde (Merit in Professional Studies) She joined the staff of Glasgow College of Nautical Studies in

7978 as a lecturer in Meteorology and Applied Science Her current post is Head of the School of Maritime Studies in the Maritime Studies Faculty.

John McEnaney joined Ellerman City Liners as a deck cadet in 7967.He obtained his Class 7/Master s Certificate in7978and left Ellerman sin 7980 while serving as Chief Officer He thenjoined the staff of Glasgow College of Nautical Studies as a Lecturer While working atG.C.N.S he has obtained a B.A from the Open University and a Teaching Qyalification in Further Education from the Jordanhill Campus of the University of Strathclyde (Merit in Teaching) His current post is Resource Manager jOr the Faculty of Maritime Studies.

Chapter overview

The formal lecture is a form of education which has It is a common failing of inexperienced lecturersoften been criticised One popular definition of a to attempt to cover too much material in too short alecturer is "a person who talks in another person's time It is a case of "more haste less speed" Studentssleep" This statement can be all too true, particularly are de-motivated if they feel that they are being rushedwhen the lecturer has not given sufficient thought to and cannot keep up with the pace of the lecture It isthe process Thorough preparation of a lecture is also important that the lecture finishes on time.essential if the lecturer is to retain the attention of the Students are often given very little time to move fromaudience throughout the whole of the time available one lecture to the next If one lecturer runs over time

At its best a well prepared, well delivered lecture can the next lecture may be disrupted, so allow for this

be a very forceful means of communication and of when planning

arousing interest

The introductory stage of the lecture is crucial to

for the whole of the lecture and sends a series of signalsWhen preparing, the most important fact to resolve is to the audience Some of these signals arethe purpose of the lecture This must be clearly unintentional Rather like the entrance of an actor orestablished in the lecturer's mind before any further ac~ress onto a stage, the lecturer must use the first fewplanning can proceed As T.H Huxley said "Some mm~tes of the lectu~e to gain the attention of theexperiences of popular lecturing had convinced me audIence and establIsh a relationship with them.that the necessity of making things plain to Making eye contact is a powerful way of establishinguninstructed people was one of the very best means a rapport Once established, the lecturer can continue

of clearing up the obscure corners in one's own mind" to use eye contact as an aid to maintaining interestOnce the strategic purpose of the lecture has been and obtaining immediate feedback

established the specific objectives can then be

identified The need to bring a lecture to a sensible conclusion

is often not considered to be essential, but an effectiveThe lecturer must give a realistic appraisal of lecture should have a well planned ending in additionwhether or not there will be sufficient time to deliver to a well planned introduction and structure.the material It is vital that the lecturer does not over Summarising the main points of the lecture and theestimate the knowledge that the student has at the concepts which have linked them assists the studentscommencement of the lecturer The needs of the in subsequent recall of the material This can bestudents are of paramount importance It is of no important where the lecture is not a stand alone eventbenefit to students to hear a lecture which is beyond but part of a cours~ or series of lectures, wheretheir grasp and so the content of the lecture must be concepts mtroduced m one lecture carry forward toadapted to suit their needs Any knowledge or the subsequent lectures

concepts essential to the understanding of the lecture

must be revised or introduced during the course of The summary should be concise This is not thethe lecture point at which the entire lecture is repeated It is

important not to indulge in vague rambling It is also Buzz groups can also be used effectively to link onebad practice to signal to the students that the lecture section of a lecture to another.

is reaching its conclusion and then spend a prolonged

period talking about a different topic If the students The idea, like all good ideas, is simple The lecturerhave concentrated throughout the lecture they may sets a problem or a discussion topic and invites thewell have received as much information as they can students to form groups of 3 or 4 to discuss or solvecope with without a break Students become frustrated the problem set The solution or summary ofwith repeated false endings and rapidly switch off This discussion points can be shown to the class on OHP

is particularly true if the lecture is the last event of the For best results, however, the groups should be invitedday or immediately precedes a meal break to present their findings on flip charts These results

are then drawn together by the lecturer, discussed and

In order to promote learning amongst students a presented on OHP as before

number of simple techniques can be used The lecture

should begin with relatively easy material and progress Although feedback is available from tutorials orfrom the easier concepts to the more difficult ones It assessments after a lecture, the lecturer requires more

is always advisable to try and begin with thoughts, immediate feedback The lecturer needs to developideas and concepts with which the students are familiar the skills to become sensitive to nonverbal feedbackThese provide a foundation of knowledge from which as a means of monitoring the progress of the lecture

it is possible to branch out into new ideas Any Fidgeting, doodling, yawning, looks of confusion orexamples that are used for illustration should be simple bewilderment are indicative that problems haveand relevant to the topic, the interests and the developed If these reactions are widespreadbackground of the students Rather than beginning throughout the audience it is preferable to back trackwith a general principle it is often better to use a series and attempt to remedy the problem Students lose

of particular examples as an introduction The general interest when they are unable to understand any stage.principle can then be deduced from the specific If students have failed to grasp an essential point inexamples If possible the lecturer should attempt to the early stages of the lecture they will not master theprepare some alternative strategies to explain difficult later stages

points

A lecture which is technically well prepared can

In order to assist with understanding, different fail due to poor presentation The unconscious signalstechniques can be considered to promote student which a lecturer sends to the audience also have anparticipation in the learning process One option is influence A lecturer should convey interest andthe use of questions enthusiasm, even if these are not felt In some respects

the lecturer is rather like someone giving a theatricalQuestions are used to promote and test performance The lecturer's voice, gestures andunderstanding and also to encourage students to think mannerisms all have an effect on the audience Thisfor themselves non-vocal communication provides signals just as

strongly as spoken words Control of these factors isThey can also be used in most teaching situations difficult to learn One strategy is to arrange a video

to seek out facts, for clarification, justification or to recording of a practice lecture It is possible to identifyfocus on important points They can also be used to lecturing faults by reviewing the tape, and hopefullyredirect if the lecture wanders from the objective to find remedies for them

In order to use questions effectively they should When simply listening to a lecture students have

be planned, they should also be clear and easy to no visual stimulus Audio visual material, correctlyunderstand and if possible short used, can be a powerful tool for maintaining interest

It is particularly useful in the case of diagrams andAnother Option is to use "Buzz Groups" These illustrations

are short sharp student discussions (say 2 to 5 minutes)

based around a small, well defined problem or topic If audio-visual aids are used they must be wellfor discussion prepared Before constructing a lecture around a range

of audio visual materials it is advisable, wheneverBuzz groups can be used to encourage student possible, to check the facilities which will be available.participation, student - student learning and idea Even if a video recorder or overhead projector isinterchange They help develop verbal expression supplied it may be that the physical constraints of theabilities and most of all provide feedback on the room will restrict their use They must be easilylecture, students are more likely to ask/answer accessible to the entire audience

questions in a larger audience if they have previously

discussed the matter with a few fellow students first

In today's world there can be a temptation to use

audio visual material when it is not really required

and is producing no real advantage to the lecture

Merely scribbling a few words on an overhead

projector acetate provides no more benefit than writing

the same words on the blackboard Darkening the

room for prolonged periods may induce sleep in the

audience, particularly if the lecture follows a heavy

meal If a piece of video or film is used it should be

given a clear introduction by the lecturer and students

should be briefed on what to look out for during the

course of the film Video can be particularly useful

since it is relatively easy to select clips that are relevant

to the topic and time is not wasted on extraneous

material which can disrupt the flow of the lecture

The lecturer must decide what type of permanent

record of the lecture would be desirable for students

One option is for students to take their own notes

Some students may be mature enough to write their

own notes while the lecture is delivered, but many

students are unable to cope Some simply cannot write

quickly enough These students may well become

frustrated and lose heart as they begin to fall behind

the lecturer For others the actual taking of notes

becomes more important than listening to what is said

and trying to follow the logical thread of the lecture

Many students are unable to discriminate between

different statements made by the lecturer and so they

miss important points There are also some students

who just cannot cope with writing and listening at the

same time Despite the difficulties there can be

important benefits from note-taking If note taking is

considered as the most suitable it is important to ensure

that the physical environment is appropriate If the

room is darkened for the showing of a video, film or

slides the level of illumination must be restored so

that students can see well enough to write There must

also be a suitable surface for students to rest their paper

in order to write If they have to rest note-pads on

their knees while they write, it quickly becomes very

uncomfortable

If a suitable text-book is available it is possible to

organise the lecture based upon the text This is rarely

satisfactory, however it does ensure that the students

have a suitable reference A possible drawback is that

it can mean that students do not attend the lecture

because they feel that they can just read the book

Some lecturers choose to give their students a

handout This provides the student with a ready

written record of the lecture It should not be used as

a substitute for lecture preparation Occasionally,

lecturers will put all of their available effort into the

preparation of the handout material to the detriment

of the actual lecture This is based upon the theory

that it does not matter too much how poor the lecture

is since the students always have the handout to fall

back on In these circumstances the students mighthave been better served by giving them a book to read.Better produced handouts provide an essential outline

of objectives of the lecture, the main substance, keyreferences and suggest further reading It is possible

to distribute the handout material prior to the lecture

in order that students can do some reading before thelecture is delivered Alternatively, the handout can beissued towards the end of the lecture when the lecturer

is summarising the main points or upon completion

of the lecture

One useful compromise is to issue some structurednotes This itemises the main points of the lecture andprovides spaces for students to write in the information

to complete the notes This ensures that students areparticipating by partially writing their own notes.Once the subject matter of the lecture has beenplanned most lecturers begin their reading Even ifthe topic is a very familiar one, with which the lecturerfeels well informed, further reading is worth while.This is particularly true when dealing with topics whereresearch is moving at a very fast pace Even with moreestablished material it may be that reading will changethe lecturer's approach Reading can prove to be verytime consuming It is important to try and concentrate

on information It can be more efficient to make noteswhile reading in order to avoid having to reread anentire text At this stage the lecture may be subject todrastic revision Some areas which now appearimportant may have been omitted previously andsome material may now appear to be of lesserimportance It can be seen that to deliver a wellstructured lecture a thorough plan has to be prepared

to cover all aspects

The stage is then reached when the lecture plancan be written This is probably the most importantpart of the lecture, like all things in life goodpreparation is required before a professionalperformance can be given and this is particularly sowith a lecture A one hour lecture may require three

to four hours to prepare Try giving a ten minute 'talk',

on a subject with which you are reasonably familiar,without any preparation and see for yourself

Therefore before commencing any lecture acomprehensive lecture/lesson plan should be drawn

up, as this allows you to set down the format of thelecture and helps you to focus on the strategic purposeand specific objectives

The basic requirements of a lesson plan a) A list comprising - course, subject, lesson title,expected number of students and type of student(rating, cadet, mate or master)

are:-b) A full list of the specific objectives together with

any prerequisites and equipment (OHP, chalk

board, flip chart, handouts, etc.)

c) The lesson plan should incorporate the following

features:-i A detailed introduction to the lesson including

examples, illustrations and revision questions

ii All verbal questions, buzz group and discussion

questions together with expected answers

e) There should be sufficient back up tutorials forstudents to gain proficiency in the topic

As always the content and/ or purpose of the lecturewill playa significant part in determining the structure

of the lecture It may take the form of a verbalpresentation only or a talk illustrated with visualdisplay material

In order to structure the lesson the lecturer ;rl1ouldconsider what the general aim of the lecture is, andwhat you expect the student to be able to do as a result

of the lecture

A typical structure may be as

follows:-There are numerous disadvantages to the straightlecture and these can be generally be grouped undertwo main headings:-

Learning: no feedback as to student learning i.e thelecturer does all the talking, not geared toward thelearning needs of the student i.e it is at the lecturer'space Research indicates that it does not seem tofacilitate effective recall

iii Details of what you will say to the students

during the lecture and what you will ask them

to do (including any instructions as necessary)

IV. An indication of where supporting materials will

be used during the lecture i.e are any visual

aids necessary other than the standard Overhead

Projector (OHP) and/or chalkboard?

v Details of revision questions, summaries,

references to textbooks, etc

The sequence of the plan should follow the planned

sequence of events in the intended lecture

On completion it is important to check that all the

objectives have been fulfilled then review and adjust

the plan as necessary

There are two main types of lecture currently used

- the Straight (Classic) Lecture and the Broken (Step

For some situations a straight (classic) lecture can

be the most appropriate This is a period of

uninterrupted talk or presentation It can be useful

when large groups of students are involved (50 or

more) particularly at the early stages of a course to

outline both the syllabus and the course content It

can also be useful in helping to present material

gathered from several sources in one presentation and

to allow experts to present findings or opinions thus

encouraging discussion and critical awareness in

students

The basic requirements for a straight

lecture:-a) The lecturer must be seen & heard - "if they haven't

heard it, it hasn't been said"

b) His/her voice should be clear, interesting, easy to

listen to and paced

c) Any written or diagrammatic material for OHP

should be readable

Boredom: distractions i.e note taking, reading OHPetc Lack of variety in student activity i.e listeningonly

Finally, research indicates an average attentionspan of most students to be about 20 minutes and also,straight lectures require a great deal of hard work fromthe lecturer

An alternative format, the broken (step by step)lecture, can be used

"It is fallacious to assume that learning takes placewhen the student merely hears the teacher There must

be questions, discussions, problems and exercises inorder to maintain a sufficiently high level of interest."(Powell)

This format assists with the overcoming of themany problems which arise with the straight lectureparticularly those causing the most concern i.e:-

a) The absence of direct feedback as to student

learning

b) The boredom factor

To avoid these we have to look to what alternatives

we should try to test the students understanding/

learning and take corrective action as we proceed,

while at the same time trying to boost student

confidence and encourage their participation

Boredom can be alleviated by varying the structure

of the lecture, introducing student activities and

encourage talking to the lecturer and to each other

This leads us to the use of the Broken Lecture (Step

By Step) This is a structured lesson broken up by

questions and other means to allow feedback

Introduction

Try to have an introduction which is interesting andrelated to the lesson which follows Let the studentsknow what they will be able to do at the end of thelesson and try to present the most interesting aspect

of the material at this stage

Understanding

Make information comprehensible by using simple,interesting examples to illustrate each point.Proceeding from the known to the unknown and fromparticular examples to a general principle, keep anyprinciples and definitions as END points

Recapitulation

Conclusion

A typical structure for an alternative lecture would

be:-As stated earlier regardless of the type it should be

obvious that for an effective lecture a detailed lesson

plan must be drawn up prior to delivery

The basic requirements are the same as for the

straight lecture with the addition of a step by step

structure built around the needs of the learner rather

than the needs of the lecturer, i.e with built in feedback

from the students through planned questions and buzz

groups However this may not be appropriate with

large numbers of students as discussion group sizes

should be about 3 or 4 people, therefore this type of

lecture only works for numbers less than about 40

Student participation

Try to make the student anticipate each step you aregoing to take i.e try to present what is required tomake each step clear before proceeding to it

Introduce refinements gradually Introducing toomany difficulties at once causes confusion and leads

to a lack of understanding Try to ensure proficiency

at one stage before proceeding to the next Recap instages Do not postpone all recap until the end of thelesson Students lose interest when they are unable tounderstand any stage of a lesson and understanding

of any stage may depend on mastery of an earlier one

Encourage their activity and participation at allstages, particularly when producing the summary.They should be able to explain in their own wordswhat they have learned

For most lecturers the preparation and delivery oflectures is something which they develop over a period

of time The important thing is to learn from yourexperiences Even the best prepared of lectures maynot go well on a particular day Analyse your successesand failures and try to identify ways in which you canimprove Careful preparation cannot always guaranteesuccess, but a lack of preparation usually results infailure

Introduction and statement of objectives

using planned questions

Main point

Buzz group based on main point and

introducing secondary point

Second point

Student task based on objectives

Revision using planned questions from

In order to assist with the presentation of a lecture the

following procedures are worth remembering

Chapter FIVE

A CURRICULUM FOR MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

by Professor Captain Giinther Zade FNI

World Maritime University

Gunther Zade FNI has, since 7983, been professor, vice-rector and academic dean of the World Maritime University (WMU) in Malmo, Sweden BefOrejoining WM[1, he worked fOr fifteen years at the Nautical College (Hochschule Jilr Nautik) in Bremen, Germany, as lecturer, professor, vice-rector and rector.

He was involved in the development of the first postgraduate curriculum fOr WMU in 7982 and early 7983 and has thereafter contributed to, co-ordinated and continues to coordinate the continuous improvement of its delivery and adaptation to new education and training needs In Bremen, he was involved in the changefrom a shipboard-confined curriculum to a shiP-shore curriculum fOr increasedprofessional ability of master mariners and in the introduction of an academic degreeprogramme.

At WMU he was directly responsible fOr seven years in educating and training nautical, and later also marine engineering, lecturers In Bremen he was mainly trained on-the-job as a nautical lecturer and, after additional studies, obtained the German equivalent of a Master of Science degree in Nautical Studies and Education.

He isa previous and the present chairman of the International Maritime Lecturers' Association (IMLA) and chairman of the European Commissionsconcerted action on Maritime Education and Training.

Introduction

Curriculum development is nothing new The factors

which have to be considered have been known for a

long time Curriculum development is a mixture of

analysis and design work It is a practical exercise that

requires common sense and is best done in a team

Developing a curriculum is by far the best way of

learning to do it So as not to miss important factors

or details, or spend too much time on trial and error,

a list of factors which have to be considered when

developing a curriculum can be very helpful in

ensuring an organized and efficient approach The

following text provides such a list of factors It is an

annotated list, providing some details of each factor

on what has to be taken into account when dealing

with it

There are many publications on curriculum

development and these often comprise more than two

hundred pages A summary on curriculum

development like this one has, therefore, to leave out

many details and concentrate on essentials I have

included what I have found to be essential from my

own experience in curriculum development for

students in maritime education and training, students

who want to obtain a certificate of competency and

others who have already obtained one

Definition

There is no internationally agreed definition of

"curriculum" (Print, 1993, pp 7-9)although there seems

to be a widespread understanding that a curriculumprovides planned learning opportunities andexperience to students For the purpose of this textthis basic definition is used

The following factors should be considered whendeveloping a curriculum: