Methods toward a science of behavior and experience 10th edition ray test bank

Chapter 2 – Introduction to the Methods of Science Chapter Outline Naturalistic Observation The Correlational Approach The Experimental Method Definitions in the Experimental Method

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Chapter 2 – Introduction to the Methods of Science

Chapter Outline

Naturalistic Observation

The Correlational Approach

The Experimental Method

Definitions in the Experimental Method

Scientific Observation: The Raw Data of Science

Evaluating Scientific Research

Communication in Science

Chapter Overview

Science is an extension of how we go about exploring the world Naturalistic observation involves observing and describing what occurs In the correlational approach, the

scientist examines the association between variables; this method does not imply

causality However, the experimental method allows the testing of cause and effect relationships by manipulating the independent variable and measuring its effect on the dependent variable Hypotheses are tested using experimental and control groups; the variables that are manipulated and measured should be operationally defined Scientists may also engage in exploratory research

In testing hypotheses, science must rely on logic and inference There is particular

interest in ensuring the validity of research; internal and external validity must be present

in the experiment Logic, through inductive and deductive reasoning, plays an important role in ruling out alternative explanations Popper’s and Kuhn’s views of science have shaped how scientists go about asking and answering questions

It is important to communicate to the scientific community the results of research that are accurate, capable of being replicated, and relevant to others

Chapter Objectives

1 Integrate these three important aspects of science: (1) idea, (2) experience, and (3) reorganization

2 What are the strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation? Give an example

of this type of study

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4 Describe the experimental method Why is it the most powerful design? Discuss the importance of operational definitions of variables

5 Differentiate between the independent and dependent variables

6 What is a confounding variable and how does it affect interpretation of the findings?

7 Explain causation in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions

8 What is the balance between internal and external validity in research?

9 A scientist relies on both deductive and inductive logic in science Distinguish between these reasoning methods and evaluate when they are used in the scientific process

10 How does modus tollens apply to testing scientific theories?

11 How are scientists influenced by paradigms? Give examples of paradigm shifts

12 According to the text, what are the four ways to ensure the high quality of research?

13 Aristotle emphasized scientific inquiry and argument How do they relate to

communication of science?

Teaching Points

The chapter describes other methods developed to answer specific questions (e.g., case approaches, qualitative methods) In fact, there are several single-case studies that many students might be familiar with and are worth reminding them of For instance, most introductory psychology courses discuss Phineas Gage as an illustration of the case study (http://www.deakin.edu.au/hmnbs/psychology/gagepage/) In addition, you might suggest that focus groups, commonly used in marketing research, are a type of qualitative method Perhaps some of your students have participated in focus groups sponsored by your institution

single-The premise of naturalistic observation is very familiar to students Many of them have engaged in watching others in parks, airports, and the student union One of the famous examples of naturalistic observation is Jane Goodall’s work with chimpanzees Check out her website for more information One of the challenges in naturalistic observation is being unobtrusive Researches often come up with ingenious ways to deal with this issue For instance Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt and Hans Hass studied facial expressions using a film camera that would actually record events that were occurring to the side of the camera, not in front were the “lens” appeared to be

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A problem area for students is in the use of the words positive and negative It is

important to remind them that positive and negative, as in correlations, describe the direction of the relationship, not any type of value statement as in a good or bad

correlation

Students often have great difficulty distinguishing between the independent and the dependent variables as well as formulating operational definitions One helpful trick is to

use “ICED” where the Independent variable is Cause and the Effect is the Dependent

variable Offer lots of practice identifying variables and creating operational definitions

A good starting place is to give students hypotheses to test:

 It is harder to concentrate when there is loud music playing

 People feel sad in rooms painted blue

 Depression impairs memory

 People recall more pleasant than unpleasant experiences when happy

It is useful to have students know the pros and cons of each research method that is

described For example, the naturalistic observation method is very good for studying natural behavior, but the researcher has no control over what happens Control is a

strength of the experimental method, but control can make conditions artificial and hence unrealistic

Teaching Activities

Role of the Scientist

The scientist plays a different role in each of the methods described in the chapter Use Handout 2-1 to help students identify those roles as well as to better understand the

methods

Doing Naturalistic Observation

One effective way to illustrate the challenge inherent in naturalistic observation is to assign students the task of observing behavior in a public setting such as a cafeteria or park Inform them that they must simply describe what they observed Of course, they should operationally define the variables they are observing Many students will initially interpret and attribute the observed behavior to some cause Moreover, having students make these observations in pairs allows for a discussion of interrater reliability and may augment this activity

Correlation in the Popular Media

One of the most often-made mistakes regarding correlation is describing the relationship

in terms of causality Scour the popular media for articles that use the term “correlation.” Have students examine these articles for direct or indirect references to causation

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Testing Old Wives’ Tales using the Experimental Method

An effective way to help students better understand the experimental method is to test common sayings Ask students to select a saying and then to develop an experiment to test its validity Part of the task is to identify the independent and dependent variables, create operational definitions of variables, and to indicate the experimental and control groups

Test a Memory Drug

As a class, design a simple experiment to test a fictional memory drug Ask the students

to identify the experimental group, control group, independent variable, dependent

variable, placebo, and means of assigning subjects to groups

Infomercials and the Scientific Method

Record an infomercial and show it to your class Alternatively, visit a website that

describes some of the products pitched on infomercials (see below) Have students evaluate the claims Discuss how they would go about testing the claims from a scientific approach

Philosophy of Science: Sir Karl Popper (Falsification Approach)

One helpful activity to teach falsification is to claim that photographs move when we

don’t look at them The claim continues that people and objects return back to their

original location as we observe the picture To emphasize the point, ask students to find a photograph in the textbook and then close the book Comment that the characters in the photograph are moving In unison, the students are to open up the book and look at the

photograph and report what they see or don’t see Challenge students to develop a

method to test this hypothesis, which appears to be untestable

Philosophy of Science: Thomas Kuhn

James Burke’s PBS series “Connections” can be helpful to illustrate how paradigm shifts and discoveries in one field “trigger” change in another field

Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop

http://www.wadsworth.com/

psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_wrk.html

The Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop has a link entitled Experimental Methods

that focuses on the types of variables that are present in experiments First, experimental methods are distinguished from non-experimental approaches Then, general types of

variables are reviewed, including independent, dependent, and subject variables (as well as quantitative and categorical variables) The notion of confounds is introduced, and students are afforded practice with the provided research examples in recognizing and eliminating confounds Several examples also are provided to give students guidance on how to select levels of an independent variable

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Internet Resources

The Jane Goodall Institute (www.janegoodall.org)

Jane Goodall represents an effective and worthwhile illustration of naturalistic

observation The website describes her work and her current activism for chimpanzees and the environment

Infomercials (www.infomercial.com)

This site describes top selling infomercial products and is good fodder for practicing developing methods to test the product’s claims Especially intriguing are the exercise products that claim incredible health benefits

The Karl Popper Web (http://www.tkpw.net/)

Popper’s contributions to science are described on this website In addition, an email based open forum is offered to those who are interested in discussing Popper’s ideas

Web Center for Social Research Methods (www.socialresearchmethods.net)

Here there are some links to various useful resources pertaining to research methods The

methods tutorials are especially beneficial for this chapter

National Undergraduate Research Clearinghouse (http://www.webclearinghouse.net/)

Undergraduate students often engage in research and produce scholarly works This site allows the user to search for research You may wish to use this site to search for

examples of different types of methods

The Fallacy Files (www.fallacyfiles.org)

Given that the chapter speaks to the role of logic in science, it might be interesting to peruse this site for its collection of logical fallacies (e.g., the masked man fallacy, four- term fallacy, and red herring)

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