operational radiation safety training

Design and Development of a Radiation Safety Training Program.. 4.1 Employees 4.1.1 Radiation Workers Radiation workers are individuals who: • have significant potential for exposure t

NCRP REPORT No 134

Operational Radiation

Safety Training

Recommendations of the

NATIONAL COUNCIL ON RADIATION

PROTECTION AND MEASUREMENTS

Issued October 13, 2000

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement

7910 Woodmont Avenue / Bethesda, Maryland 20814-3095

LEGAL NOTICE

This Report was prepared by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) The Council strives to provide accurate, complete and use- ful information in its documents However, neither the NCRP, the members of NCRP, other persons contributing to or assisting in the preparation of this Report, nor any person acting on the behalf of any of these parties: (a) makes any warranty

or representation, express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the information contained in this Report, or that the use of any infor- mation, method or process disclosed in this Report may not infringe on privately owned rights; or (b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of any information, method or process disclosed in this

Report, under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Section 701 et seq as amended 42 U.S.C Section 2000e et seq (Title VII) or any other statutory or common law theory govern- ing liability.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements.

Operational radiation safety training.

p cm (NCRP report ; no 134)

“NCRP revision of report no 71”

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Copyright © National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 2000 All rights reserved This publication is protected by copyright No part of this publica- tion may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying, or uti- lized by any information storage and retrieval system without written permission from the copyrightowner, except for brief quotation in critical articles or reviews.

For detailed information on the availability of NCRP documents see page 59.

Preface

This Report emphasizes management’s responsibility in ing employees, and presents criteria for identifying trainingrequirements for different groups of employees The type of person-nel to be trained is treated and an extensive coverage of the designand development of radiation safety programs is provided Thelearning environment and training aids are discussed and guid-ance on the audit of training programs is given

train-This Report supersedes NCRP Report No 71 on Operational

Radiation Safety - Training It was prepared by Scientific

Commit-tee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety Serving on Scientific mittee 46 were:

Com-Kenneth R Kase, Chairman

Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

Menlo Park, California

Members

Duke Engineering & Services University of Missouri

Charlotte, North Carolina Columbia, Missouri

Auxier & Associates, Inc Consultant

Knoxville, Tennessee Lititz, Pennsylvania

Florida Power Corporation M.S Hershey Medical CenterCrystal River, Florida Hershey, Pennsylvania

3M Health Physics Services Lawrence Livermore

St Paul, Minnesota National Laboratory

Livermore, California

Oregon State University Texas A&M University

Corvallis, Oregon College Station, Texas

iv / PREFACE

NCRP Secretariat

Eric E Kearsley, Staff Scientist (1998–1999)

Lynne A Fairobent, Staff Scientist (1999–2000)

Cindy L O’Brien, Managing Editor

The Council wishes to express its appreciation to the Committeemembers for the time and effort devoted to the preparation of thisReport

Charles B Meinhold

President

Contents

Preface iii

1 Introduction 1

2 Management’s Responsibility 3

2.1 Introduction 3

2.2 Qualification of Trainers 3

2.3 Evaluation 4

2.4 Records 4

3 Factors to Consider When Identifying Training Requirements 6

3.1 The Potential for Radiation Exposure 6

3.2 The Complexity of the Task 6

3.3 Regulatory Requirements 6

3.4 Other Factors 7

4 Personnel to be Trained 8

4.1 Employees 8

4.1.1 Radiation Workers 8

4.1.2 General Employees 9

4.1.3 Management and Supervisory Personnel 9

4.1.4 Radiation Safety Personnel 10

4.2 Contractor Personnel 10

4.3 Females of Reproductive Age 10

4.4 Visitors 10

4.5 Minors 11

4.6 Emergency Personnel 12

4.6.1 Pre-Emergency Training 12

4.6.2 Post-Emergency Training 12

4.7 Special Situations 13

4.8 Engineering Personnel 13

vi / CONTENTS

5 Design and Development of a Radiation Safety

Training Program 15

5.1 Introduction 15

5.2 Step One: Job Task Analysis 15

5.3 Step Two: Training Design and Development 16

5.3.1 Training Objectives 16

5.3.2 Testing Criteria 16

5.3.3 Course Structure 17

5.3.4 Summary Analysis 17

5.4 Step Three: Lesson Plan and Training Materials 17

5.5 Step Four: Evaluation Plan 18

5.6 Step Five: Instruction 19

5.7 Step Six: Evaluation and Feedback 19

5.8 Retraining 19

6 Learning Environment and Training Aids 21

6.1 Individual Study 21

6.2 Group Instruction 22

6.3 Mentoring 22

6.4 On-the-Job Training 22

6.5 Training Aids 23

6.6 Training Environment 23

7 Audit 24

Appendix A Suggested Topics for Radiation Safety Training 25

Appendix B Examples of the Training Method 28

B.1 Secretarial Support Staff in a Small Medical Facility 28

B.1.1 Introduction 28

B.1.2 Step One: Job Task Analysis 28

B.1.3 Step Two: Training Design and Development 29

B.1.4 Step Three: Lesson Plan and Training

Materials 30

B.1.5 Step Four: Evaluation Plan 30

B.1.6 Step Five: Instruction 32

B.1.7 Step Six: Evaluation and Feedback 32

B.2 Training for a Manufacturer’s Field Engineer in a Nuclear Power Station 32

B.2.1 Introduction 32

B.2.2 Step One: Job Task Analysis 33

CONTENTS / vii

B.2.3 Step Two: Training Design and Development 35

B.2.4 Step Three: Lesson Plan and Training Materials 36

B.2.5 Step Four: Evaluation Plan 38

B.2.6 Step Five: Instruction 39

B.2.7 Step Six: Evaluation and Feedback 39

B.3 Radiographer in a Construction Company 40

B.3.1 Introduction 40

B.3.2 Step One: Job Task Analysis 41

B.3.3 Step Two: Training Design and Development 42

B.3.4 Step Three: Lesson Plan and Training Materials 42

B.3.5 Step Four: Evaluation Plan 43

B.3.6 Step Five: Instruction 43

B.3.7 Step Six: Evaluation and Feedback 43

Appendix C Radiation Risk and Risk Management for Radiation Safety Training 45

C.1 Risks Associated with Radiation Exposure 45

C.2 Control of Total Risk through Integrated Risk Management 46

References 48

The NCRP 50

NCRP Publications 59

Index 68

1 Introduction

Whenever radioactive materials or other radiation sources areused, appropriate training of the worker is required NCRP Report

No 127, Operational Radiation Safety Program (NCRP, 1998), sets

forth the basic elements of an ionizing radiation safety program.Training of employees who may be exposed to radiation in thecourse of their work was cited as a necessary part of such a pro-gram All radiation hazards and the related training programsdesigned to control exposures to both ionizing and nonionizingradiation should be presented as part of the overall occupationalhealth and safety program Although this Report focuses on radia-tion safety training, it is important for a training program toinclude information about all occupational hazards that might beencountered This will allow judgments regarding radiation haz-ards to be made in perspective with the other hazards that might

be present

Training rather than education is the subject of this Report Asthe term is employed herein, training is linked to the instructionand practice that are required to develop job-related skills or modes

of behavior, while education, which may include training, impliesachievement of a greater degree of understanding Although onemight consider it desirable to educate the worker, practical consid-erations limit the total number of workers who can be educated inthe formal sense On the other hand, scientists and engineers,whose work involves ionizing or nonionizing radiation, may havereceived such training as a part of their education; however, train-ing for specific job requirements may also be necessary for theseindividuals

There are at least four important reasons for training First, thedevelopment of worker skills through training enables the individ-ual to perform tasks efficiently and with confidence Second, whenindividuals are aware that there is some risk associated with theirexposure, they can become active participants in the decision toaccept and, where possible, to reduce such risk as part of their job.Third, the number and seriousness of accidents can be reducedthrough training Fourth, workers, who are properly trained, will

be aware of the regulatory requirements associated with their

2 / 1 INTRODUCTION

activities that involve radiation or radioactive material Thus, anemployee trained for both routine and nonroutine situations ismore likely to assist in maintaining all exposures as low as reason-ably achievable (ALARA)

The scope and depth of radiation safety training will vary icantly with the job requirements and the responsibilities of theemployee For the radiologist's secretary, a brief description ofthe working environment, the risks and protective measures may

signif-be sufficient In such uncomplicated situations, on-the-job trainingmay be all that is necessary For persons involved in reactor opera-tions, fuel fabrication, or decommissioning, an extensive, struc-tured training program will be required However, the basicprinciples and practices of training are common to virtually allclasses of employees This Report emphasizes these principles andpractices and provides guidance for the development of the totaltraining program

Although it is not a detailed training manual, this Report isintended to provide senior management personnel with a usefulsummary of the needs and requirements of training programs Pro-fessional health physicists and trainers will find useful informationfor the development, conduct and evaluation of their training pro-grams Professional trainers will find useful information in support

of their programs A private physician using a diagnostic x-raymachine, or an individual scientist working with small quantities

of radioactive materials, may find this Report contains more mation than required Nevertheless, the general philosophy andspecific training concepts will be useful

The success of a radiation safety training program depends to alarge extent on management commitment Employees can readilydiscern the degree of this commitment to the training program in

many ways (e.g., organization of the training program, condition of

training facilities, competence of training personnel, the prioritygiven to the training, time allotted for training, expectations ofemployee involvement) It is important that management keepoperational requirements from interfering with the training pro-gram and ensure that adequate funding and sufficient trainingtime are provided and that the importance of training is conveyed

to supervisors and staff

2.2 Qualification of Trainers

Qualification requires that trainers have a sound ing of the radiation safety subjects that they teach Trainers shouldhave a combination of academic courses, on-the-job training, andpractical experience in those subjects that is sufficient for them toconfidently answer questions on theory, applications and rationale

understand-If the material presented is to be directly applied by the trainee insuch areas as operations, instrumentation, shipping, etc., theinstructor should have appropriate experience in the specific

4 / 2 MANAGEMENT’S RESPONSIBILITY

application It is recommended that trainers themselves receivetraining in instructional methods Competent trainers are essen-tial if a training program is to lead to satisfactory performance bythe trainees

In some organizations a single individual may be responsible forthe overall training effort Such an individual must have therespect and confidence of management and must be delegated ade-quate responsibility and authority to administer and manage thetraining program effectively In these programs, it is vital thatthe responsible individual be dedicated to training and under-standing of the various organizational needs that training can ful-fill Further, this person should be able to manage, plan and projectfuture needs; select qualified staff; and utilize personnel effectively.The training organization should be versatile and flexible so thatthe emphasis can be changed easily and efficiently to meet theneeds of the facility's operations

In other organizations, the training responsibility may beshared among responsible members of the radiation safety staff Insuch organizations the qualification requirements should be met byeach of the individual trainers

2.3 Evaluation

Management has the responsibility to evaluate the performance

of the trainers and to provide feedback that will help to modify thetraining program as appropriate Review of training objectives,evaluation of the learning environment, and funding are also part

of this effort This evaluation should determine the effectiveness ofthe training staff, its responsiveness to feedback, the cost-effectiveness of the program, and areas requiring improvement

2.4 Records

A system for maintaining training information can be used toevaluate the adequacy of the program, establish an inventory ofemployee skills, and delineate the additional needs of the workers.Appropriate records should be kept to document classroom train-ing, on-the-job training, demonstrations, and other training activi-ties They should include course descriptions, dates on whichcourses were given, attendance, and results of any examinations.Course materials should include sample copies of all lesson plans,worksheets, examinations, problem sets, etc., as well as results of

2.4 RECORDS / 5

audits and evaluations of all training activities A record of eachtrainee’s performance should be retained and be available to thattrainee Student evaluations of the course and the instructorshould be included in this collection

A repository for records may be necessary for a specified perioddepending on legal requirements These records must be in order,complete, and easily retrievable Further information on recordrequirements is found in NCRP Report No 114 (NCRP, 1992)

3.1 The Potential for Radiation Exposure

Potential exposure of employees can usually be estimated beforethe work starts The higher the potential exposure, the moredetailed and comprehensive are the training requirements Thenature of the potential exposure, such as from airborne radioactivematerials, surface contamination, devices, or sources, will alsocontribute to determining the content and depth of the trainingprogram

3.2 The Complexity of the Task

Some tasks are more complicated than others and require siderably more training to assure that the job can be completedsafely and competently, and that the associated radiation exposurecan be maintained ALARA Other site-specific hazards associated

con-with the radiation safety program (e.g., heat stress and

anti-contamination clothing use, handling infectious radioactivepatients, obscured vision when wearing full-face respiratory pro-tection, etc.) should be considered

3.3 Regulatory Requirements

There may be state or federal regulatory requirements which

will influence the structure and content of training (e.g., females of

reproductive age, training for radiographers, etc.) Managers and

phys-• Personnel who are directly and continuously supervised willnormally need less training than those who work indepen-dently or who have infrequent supervision.

• Individuals who are responsible for the supervision ofothers will usually require more training

• Individuals who have received previous training mayrequire only site-specific additional training Care must betaken to assure that the previous training is current andapplicable to the needs of the employee's present positionand has been retained

• Individuals who have personal concerns about radiationmay need special attention

• The training program should be responsive to specificemployee concerns

4 Personnel to be Trained

All individuals who, in the course of their occupation, areexposed to radiation levels above those of the general natural back-ground at the surface of the earth should receive radiation safetytraining This includes individuals who visit or work in a facility inwhich radioactive material is handled or radiation-producingdevices are operated It also includes individuals who may beexposed to enhanced radiation levels from sources that are gener-

ally considered to be natural, e.g., cosmic rays Individuals

associ-ated with a radiological environment should be provided a level oftraining commensurate with the nature of their responsibilities,their potential exposure, and other potential hazards Appendix Aspecifies the essentials that should be covered

Some workers have an increased potential for exposure due to

their job assignments (e.g., they handle radioactive materials or

operate radiation-producing equipment) Other workers may beonly incidentally exposed to radioactive materials or radiationsources Individuals should be classified based on their workassignments and responsibilities, potential for exposure, and rela-tionship to the facility

4.1 Employees 4.1.1 Radiation Workers

Radiation workers are individuals who:

• have significant potential for exposure to radiation in thecourse of their work assignments, or

• are directly responsible for or involved with the use and trol of radiation sources or radioactive materials

con-These individuals generally are subject to routine personnelmonitoring Employees in this category will generally be required

to have extensive training, which will vary depending upon thenature of their jobs For example, one may want to distinguish

4.1 EMPLOYEES / 9

between individuals (a radiochemist or a radiographer) whosework assignments involve the use of radioactive material or radia-tion-producing devices and other individuals (skilled craftsmen or

maintenance personnel, e.g., a person working on contaminated

ductwork) whose work assignments may require their working in aradiation field

As a minimum, the subject matter presented in Appendix Ashould be considered in developing a training program The timerequired to conduct the training program may range from a fewhours to several days depending on the factors listed in Section 3and, particularly, on the need for job-specific training

4.1.2 General Employees

Some individuals can be identified who do not work routinelywith radioactive material or other radiation sources, but whoseduties may occasionally bring them into areas where radiationexposure can occur These may include stockroom personnel, ship-ping clerks, secretaries, nurses, students, and housekeeping staff.However, where the involvement is more than sporadic, it is rea-sonable to classify such individuals as radiation workers Theclassification must be based on frequency, duration, level of super-vision, and the potential magnitude of exposure

Individuals categorized as “general employees” will normallyneed at least one, but less than four hours of radiation safety train-ing Many of the topics in Appendix A can be treated in less depthfor this group than for radiation workers However, a specific effortshould be made to assure that individuals in this category areaware of the level of their radiation exposure, understand its rela-tive importance, and learn how to control their own exposure Indi-viduals can be unduly concerned about low levels of exposure and

be fearful of their work environment if an appropriate perspective

is not established

4.1.3 Management and Supervisory Personnel

Managers and supervisors should be classified in one of the twocategories described in Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 Radiation safetytraining is important for such individuals insofar as it may affectthe activities, safety and training of personnel they supervise

10 / 4 PERSONNEL TO BE TRAINED

4.1.4 Radiation Safety Personnel

The professional and technical radiation safety staff will ally be classified as radiation workers They require additional aca-demic education and practical training in order to direct, assessand train others in the implementation of the facility’s radiationsafety program Training for radiation safety technicians must becommensurate with the hazards and jobs performed at the specificfacility

gener-4.2 Contractor Personnel

Many facilities make use of individuals who are employed bycontractors and who are assigned to a facility for a period of time toperform specific tasks This category may include laborers, mainte-nance workers, craftsmen, technicians, security personnel, consult-ants, and others Contractor personnel should be provided withtraining commensurate with the potential hazards Their trainingshould be similar to that for regular full-time employees working inthe same conditions Review of a contractor employee's trainingexperience with current and previous employers should be consid-ered in determining the training requirements for this individual

4.3 Females of Reproductive Age

Females of reproductive age can be allowed access to, andemployed in facilities in which the potential exists for exposure toradiation, but they should be informed and made aware of the level

of risk associated with their potential exposures However, itshould be noted that special regulatory limits may apply to this cat-

egory (e.g., for ionizing radiation) (NRC, 1999c) Further

informa-tion on recommendainforma-tions for the protecinforma-tion of the embryo/fetus arecontained in NCRP Report No 116 (NCRP, 1993a) and NRC Regu-latory Guide 8.13 (NRC, 1999c)

4.4 Visitors

Visitors include individuals who enter a facility, usually briefly,

as part of a tour group, personnel who service utilities and support

4.5 MINORS / 11

equipment, or as a representative of a delivery or messenger vice They could include individuals who are conferring withemployees for either short or extended periods of time Visitors whoare under the constant supervision of escort personnel can be pro-vided access after receiving training to meet the minimum require-ments, which could include the following instructions:

ser-• they may be near radioactive material or producing equipment

radiation-• they must follow the instructions of the escort personnel

• they must wear the dosimetry device as required bythe facility policy

• they may choose to decline the opportunity to visit thefacility

In any case, the individual should be informed and made aware

of the level of risk associated with the potential exposure

Individuals who enter a facility in a professional capacity ing scientists, experimenters from other research facilities, con-sultants, student trainees, etc.), who are assigned to the facility for

(visit-an extended period of time, need to be classified (visit-and trained in amanner comparable to regular employees (Sections 4.1.1 and4.1.2) In universities, government laboratories, and certain indus-trial facilities, students may be engaged in educational or trainingactivities that can result in radiation exposure Radiationtraining commensurate with the potential exposure should be pro-vided to these individuals before they are permitted to work inareas where they may be exposed to radiation

4.5 Minors

Minors (under 18 y of age) may be permitted access to facilities

in which the potential exists for exposure to radiation However, itshould be noted that special regulatory limits may apply to minors(NRC, 1999a) They and their parents or guardian should beinformed and made aware of the level of risk associated with thepotential exposure In addition to these regulations, individualfacilities may impose additional restrictions on minors Furtherinformation on recommendations for the protection of minors ispresented in NCRP Report No 116 (NCRP, 1993a)

12 / 4 PERSONNEL TO BE TRAINED

4.6 Emergency Personnel

Many facilities have procedures and plans dealing with the ious types of emergencies specific for their facilities (fire, medical,chemical, natural disaster, radiological, etc.) Guidance for develop-ing radiation emergency plans is presented in NCRP Report

var-No 111 (NCRP, 1991) Coordination and training of emergencyresponse personnel enhances their effectiveness Some facilitiesmay have regulatory requirements to establish a radiological emer-gency response plan, which includes training requirements foremergency response personnel, both from within and from outsidethe facility

4.6.1 Pre-Emergency Training

In emergency situations, a facility may need assistance fromfire, police and medical personnel, who may be regular employees,contractor personnel, or simply “volunteers” available from anearby location (city, hospital, etc.) Although these individuals arewell trained in their specialty, they may not be familiar with per-forming those functions in areas where radioactive materials areroutinely handled, or where radioactive contamination may bepresent Also, they may not have experience with treating individ-uals potentially contaminated with radioactive materials or thathave received a significant radiation exposure To assist them inmeeting their responsibilities in emergency situations the facilitymanagement should provide training specific to the radiation haz-ards they may encounter In general this training should include adescription of the types of radiation hazards at the facility, physicalproperties of the radioactive materials, inventories and quantities

of radioactive material, existing contamination levels, the possibleeffects associated with potential accidents, and the use of emer-gency radiation detection equipment The goal is to provide suffi-cient training to permit informed judgments in emergencysituations

4.6.2 Post-Emergency Training

It is acknowledged that there may be emergency situations that

do not allow the training of emergency personnel prior to arriving

at the facility In these cases, emergency personnel should beallowed access under the supervision of radiation safety personnel

in order to perform their responsibilities This will allow for the

4.8 ENGINEERING PERSONNEL / 13

appropriate medical care to be given to injured individual(s) andallow for mitigation of loss of property At the conclusion of theemergency, the radiation safety staff should initiate discussionswith emergency personnel involved to ensure that they areinformed and aware of the level of risk associated with their expo-sures Additionally, training sessions should be scheduled to ensurethat emergency personnel are aware of the full spectrum of thetypes of radiation hazards at the facility, the possible effects asso-ciated with potential future accidents involving the radioactivematerials, and the use of radiation detection equipment

4.7 Special Situations

At times, special situations may arise in which certain uals need additional training of a specific nature Individuals inthis category include: (1) workers who are required to enter unusu-ally high radiation fields, (2) family members who are required toassist a patient during medical procedures, or (3) patients who arereceiving radiation for a medical procedure and their family mem-bers [see NCRP Commentary No 11 (NCRP, 1995)] These individ-uals should be informed and made aware of the level of riskassociated with their exposures

individ-In addition, Situation 1 may require special training for ducting procedures rapidly, but safely together with other specialemergency procedures that may be imposed Mock-ups anddry-runs may be particularly useful in this case This training ismost effective when performed immediately before the operation

con-4.8 Engineering Personnel

All engineering personnel whose work assignments require thatthey design facilities in which radioactive material is handled orradiation-producing devices are operated should receive radiationsafety training These personnel include those who develop plans todeactivate or decommission a facility in which radioactive materialwas handled Although these engineers will not themselves beoccupationally exposed, the results of their efforts can impact theexposure of other employees

Engineering employees may include civil, mechanical, electricaland nuclear engineers, architects, designers, and others Radiationsafety training will vary significantly with the job requirementsand the responsibilities of the engineering employee For the

14 / 4 PERSONNEL TO BE TRAINED

mechanical or electrical engineer or designer, an understanding ofradiation, radiation effects, radiation risks, and protective mea-sures may be sufficient for the selection of equipment for applica-tions in radiation areas For the civil engineer or designer andarchitect, an understanding of radiation, radiation effects, radia-tion protection considerations, radiation risks, and protective mea-sures may be sufficient for providing engineered features to reduceradiation exposures In such uncomplicated situations, on-the-jobtraining may be all that is necessary For nuclear engineering per-sonnel, an extensive and structured program covering radiationhazards and radiation safety is provided as part of their education

This Section identifies the major elements for the development

of a radiation safety training program The approach consists of thefollowing six sequential steps which are applicable, in principle, to

any type of training: (1) perform a job task analysis to determine

the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to perform a task at

the desired level of competence; (2) design and develop the training,

including the development of training objectives, establishment

of testing criteria, and development of the course structure;

(3) develop a lesson plan and training materials; (4) develop an

evaluation plan along with the lesson plan; (5) conduct the tion; (6) evaluate and feedback results to ensure that the original

instruc-standards of performance are met and maintained The trainingprocess is normally cyclic since the evaluation and feedback, aswell as the need for retraining, can lead back to Step One Each ofthe six steps will be developed in the following sections Practicalexamples, including one for a small facility with simple require-ments and one for a large facility with multiple safety programs,are given in Appendix B

In many situations, only the rudiments of such a formalapproach will need to be employed The degree of adherence to theentire program as developed below will depend upon the magni-tude and complexity of the radiation hazards While a trainershould strive for the level of completeness this Section suggests,practical considerations will lead to some simplifications

5.2 Step One: Job Task Analysis

Specific tasks related to the work assignment are defined andanalyzed to determine the level of competence required to workwith, or around, radiation sources Following this, the necessary

16 / 5 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A TRAINING PROGRAM

supporting skills, knowledge and attitudes are identified Eachtask, together with its supporting requirements, determines thefocus of a training effort For complex jobs, this evaluation may be

quite lengthy, with many tasks and subtasks involved (e.g., see

• the nature of the radiation hazards to be encountered

• size of group to be trained

• type of skill, knowledge and attitude to be attained

• previous experience and training of the workers

• the budget and staff available for training

5.3.1 Training Objectives

Once the general scheme of the training program has beendetermined, the objectives for each selected task or subtask aredeveloped Each objective should be defined in such a way that thetrainee, upon successful completion of the course, will be able todemonstrate the acquired knowledge, skill and attitude Eachobjective should contain information on the degree of accuracy,time limitations, and other conditions under which the individualshould perform each required task As objectives are developed,they should be documented and correlated to each task so that anymodification of a task can be evaluated within the context of thetraining system

5.3.2 Testing Criteria

The next goal within the training analysis is to establish thetesting or evaluation criteria to be used in measuring successfulcompletion of the objective These criteria might consist of a writ-ten examination to demonstrate knowledge and to determine infor-mation retained, or a practical test to demonstrate skill and theability of the trainee to perform the required task Althoughthe testing criteria for each task must be developed at this stage in

5.4 STEP THREE: LESSON PLAN AND TRAINING MATERIALS / 17

order to proceed logically with the course structure, the overallapproach to testing and evaluation is discussed in Section 5.5

5.3.3 Course Structure

The next step is to develop an effective integration of the coursecontent with the method of presentation Basic perspectives onradiation risk and overall risk management should be integratedinto the course structure Topics for a training program can befound in Appendix A Appropriate teaching techniques are dis-cussed in Section 6

The course structure establishes a logical sequence, whichwould then indicate the necessary background of knowledge andskills and the preferred instructional methods The structureshould also allow for self-evaluation by the trainee and for programevaluation by both the trainee and trainer

5.3.4 Summary Analysis

The last step in the design and development of a training gram is to prepare a summary analysis sheet on the course struc-ture Such a summary analysis should include the followinginformation:

pro-• the primary task being taught

• the objectives of the course

• a listing of the major requirements (either by subtask,knowledge, skills, attitudes, subjects, demonstrations, etc.)

• the testing criteria

• the supporting material

• the instructional methods

• a listing of audiovisual aids and other necessary equipmentand materials

• an estimate of the time required to accomplish the training

5.4 Step Three: Lesson Plan and

18 / 5 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A TRAINING PROGRAM

Examples of lesson plans are presented in Appendix B Sources oftraining materials and aids are presented in Section 6 The criteriafor evaluation of the effectiveness of the training program should

be included in the lesson plan

5.5 Step Four: Evaluation Plan

The evaluation plan should be developed concurrently with thelesson plan, primarily to ensure consistency The criteria for evalu-ation should be included in the lesson plan Evaluation shouldassess the degree of learning, the retention of information, and,ultimately, the accomplishment of the training objectives The eval-uation plan, together with the developed training material, should

be reviewed to ascertain that the trainee is being taught each tive and is being tested on performance

objec-There are several types of evaluations These include: (1) tion evaluation, (2) learning evaluation, (3) performance evalua-tion, and (4) results evaluation

reac-A “reaction evaluation” is usually given immediately followingsome learning activity; it serves to provide immediate feedbackconcerning the likes and dislikes of the trainee and can be used toimprove the presentation

A “learning evaluation,” i.e., a written or oral test, is usually

given to determine the amount of knowledge retained This is cially useful if the same evaluation is performed both before, imme-diately after, and at some later time following instruction It allowsdetermination of the amount of knowledge learned and thenretained over a period of time

espe-The “performance evaluation” is a behavioral test If this ation is based on the specific job requirement, it determines effec-tively the skills and attitudes of the trainee and the success of atraining process

evalu-A “results evaluation” is used to determine the success or failure

of training The criteria can be productivity, but it can also be dent rate, collective effective dose, etc Results may be influenced

acci-by many factors and they must be analyzed carefully to determinewhat effect, if any, training has had In such evaluations, supervi-sors may provide useful input

5.8 RETRAINING / 19

5.6 Step Five: Instruction

The success of the planning effort depends on the quality ofinstruction (see Section 2.2) Instructors should be individuals whoare experienced in teaching and who have adequate knowledge ofthe subject A well-planned program needs good instruction to suc-ceed Demonstrations and “hands-on” training may be valuable, oreven essential, for certain types of instruction Some classroominstruction can be replaced effectively by using interactivecomputer-based training programs

5.7 Step Six: Evaluation and Feedback

The last step in the sequence is evaluation and feedback Thisstep consists of the continual evaluation of performance on the job

to provide feedback that will help to modify the training effort asappropriate Evaluation of instructors and audiovisual programs,validation of specific job requirements, review of training objec-tives, addressing individual concerns, evaluation of the learningenvironment to support training, budgeting, etc., are also part ofthis effort Additionally, a performance feedback program should beincorporated in this step Examples of performance feedbackinclude supervisors’ evaluation of work performance, review andevaluation of radiation survey and exposure records, and incidentreports All these factors should be used to determine whether thetraining is satisfactory, effective, responsive to feedback, andcost-effective, as well as to indicate areas requiring improvement

• retesting at periodic intervals to determine proficiencyretention (performance related, where possible)

• interviews with workers, supervisors and technical staff

to collect and review data on job performance

• periodic observation of job performance

20 / 5 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A TRAINING PROGRAM

These methods allow evaluation of the degree of retraining essary to maintain a desired proficiency The trainer should always

nec-be alert to new technological developments or for changes in dures, standards or regulations which may require retraining.The frequency of retraining may be related to the frequency ofthe use of the learned competence Those tasks that may berequired only occasionally but are highly demanding, stressful orcomplex, should be considered for periodic retraining For example,retraining for emergencies is very important since a high degree ofcompetence is necessary and the frequency of applying emergencyprocedures should be low

proce-Care should be taken to assure that retraining is scheduled aspart of the overall training program The extent of retrainingshould be supported by evaluation of performance based on specificjob requirements over the time period necessary to maintaincompetence Continuing education should be supported for profes-sional and technical radiation safety personnel and for trainingpersonnel

6 Learning Environment and Training Aids

For a training effort to be successful, the trainee who fully completes the course must become more knowledgeable aboutradiation safety and more effective in applying this knowledge topractical situations Various methods for communicating informa-tion can be effective with proper planning and implementation.There are several basic training formats: individual or personalstudy, large group instruction, mentoring, and on-the-job training

success-If several training formats are used, it is important to ensure sistency in the information being presented

con-6.1 Individual Study

Individual study is an effective way to acquire knowledge such

as mastering the basic fundamentals in a science Materials andprocesses that can be used may include: programmed learningtexts and other printed material, interactive computer systems,videotape, slides, and film A self-instruction program requiresskillful design by someone with detailed knowledge and experienceconcerning the necessary reinforcement of the typical trainee'sresponse The training can be decentralized, unscheduled,self-paced, self-evaluated, and self-reinforced Individual study can

be supplemented by encouraging the exchange of ideas and tions between a good trainer and a few course participants In allcases trainees should have the opportunity to discuss the traininginformation and to ask questions It is also important to provide forevaluation and feedback as described in Section 5.7 when develop-ing individual study programs

ques-Suitable instructional material may not always be commerciallyavailable in the technical area for which instruction is desired Insuch cases, if care is taken in their preparation, handout materialscan be an effective substitute

22 / 6 LEARNING ENVIRONMENT AND TRAINING AIDS

6.2 Group Instruction

Large group instruction is satisfactory if the objective is simply

to acquire knowledge or to develop interactive and team building

skills (e.g., teamwork for emergency responders) This is especially

true when the program includes the opportunity to practice thoseskills in laboratories and exercises If the objective is primarily toenhance understanding and develop skills, smaller discussiongroups are better The instructional formats for larger groups aretypically lectures, films, slide presentations, symposia, field trips,group interviews, and videotape

6.4 On-the-Job Training

On-the-job instruction is most useful when high degrees of skilland constant reinforcement are required Skill training should bemoved out of the classroom and into the job site where the condi-tions are real and where opportunity for repeated practice over anextended period is available In some situations, models ormock-ups of the job site will be required because of the potential forradiation exposure or nonradiological hazards On-the-job trainingrequires skillful design and evaluation with a commitment frommanagement and the trainee

6.6 TRAINING ENVIRONMENT / 23

6.5 Training Aids

Many trainers use visual supplements such as overhead tors, computer-based projection, slides, videos, filmstrips, etc., asaids in presenting information efficiently and succinctly With closeattention to maintenance of a personal relationship between thetrainer and the trainees, visual supplements can reinforce the com-munication of information There is an abundance of commerciallyavailable software that can be used for radiation safety training Videotape programs are commonly used as a communicationsmedium in technical fields Imaginative programming can makevideotape very effective, especially for self-instruction On theother hand, when these programs are no more than a recording of

projec-a lecture, they mprojec-ay be only mprojec-arginprojec-ally effective

Videotape or computer-based programs can be used as ments to the classroom environment or as methods in which thetrainee interacts with the teaching program without benefit of apersonal instructor Similarly, a number of slide and audiotape pre-sentations and self-paced instructional manuals have been devel-oped as aids to learning

supple-6.6 Training Environment

The training environment is quickly evolving as new technologybecomes available Students now have more flexibility in determin-ing the manner in which they may choose to learn They may optfor a traditional training environment such as a formal classroom

or one of the many new styles of learning that are rapidly evolving New technologies, including distance learning based on videoconferences from universities or other training centers, permit avariety of options that were not previously available These samesystems can be used within an institution to disseminate informa-tion without requiring the assembly of people at one location Addi-tionally, the Internet is a constantly expanding source forinformation on training resources However, it is important to rec-

ognize that many of the resources available via the Internet may

not have been carefully evaluated

No matter what style of training program or environment isselected, it is important to employ a feedback mechanism to mea-sure the competency of the individual to perform the job functionfor which he or she is responsible

7 Audit

Periodically, management should have the training programaudited to ensure that training objectives are being fulfilled Theaudit could be performed either internally or by an outside consult-ant The auditors should look for:

• defined objectives for the training program

• relevance of the program

• currency of the program

• the quality of the program

• the availability of feedback both at the end of the trainingand after on-the-job experience

• management commitment and resources for the trainingprogram

• frequency and duration of training

• requirements for retraining

“Essential elements” are those topics that should be included inall radiation safety training programs The extent of instructionand its technical content should be adjusted depending on the workassignments of the staff being trained.

“Optional elements” are those topics that should be consideredfor inclusion in the training program These depend on the types

of operations conducted at the facility and the work assignments ofthe staff

Radiation safety technicians need additional detailed training

in the subjects listed in the third column of Table A.1

TABLE A.1—Topics for a general training programs.

Essential Elements Optional Elements Additional Elements for Radiation

Safety TechniciansRisks related to exposure to radiation

and to other workplace hazards

Waste management/waste tion and pollution prevention

• external radiation sources

• internal radioactive materials

• protective clothing and equipment

• surveying for radiation and contamination

• decontamination

Leak testing

Basic protective measures including

engineering and administrative controls

Work area decontamination Use and calibration of survey and

monitoring equipmentSecurity including securing materials

and facilities and the individual’s role

License/regulations Recording information and survey

data and keeping recordsEmergency notification procedures and

Radioactive materials and decay Radiation and radioactive

contamina-tion survey techniquesResponsibility of employees and

organizations

Radiation-producing equipmentNatural and manufactured sources

Emergency response and personal decontamination

Interaction with radiation safety staff Acute effects of exposure

Chronic effects of low-level exposure

Radioactive waste disposalOverall safety Determination of dose Bioassay requirements/techniques

Description of and requirements related

to specific facility hazards

Basic radiation survey instrumentation

Radiation accident control techniques

Special requirements for women of

ALARA

Selection and use of appropriate sonal radiation dosimeters

of the simpler tasks presented in the examples.

Although all three of these examples are skill oriented, thissame approach can also be employed to acquaint radiation workerswith an understanding of the risk associated with their radiationexposure The discussion that follows is presented in accordancewith the steps described in Section 5

B.1 Secretarial Support Staff in a Small

Medical Facility B.1.1 Introduction

For purposes of this example, it is assumed that the secretarialstaff have all the required secretarial skills, but are not trained inthe radiation safety requirements of their work

B.1.2 Step One: Job Task Analysis

The secretarial staff ’s responsibility from a radiation safetystandpoint might be identified in our example as “observing a pro-hibition against entering controlled areas, namely x-ray roomsand/or radionuclide preparation and administration areas.”With the task established, the supervisor can now prepare astandard of performance that describes its successful accomplish-ment In this example, it is necessary “to recognize the caution sign

B EXAMPLES OF THE TRAINING METHOD / 29

for controlled areas and not to enter such an area under normaloperating conditions.”

With this standard of performance, the supervisor can identifythe skills, knowledge and attitudes necessary to accomplish thetask In this example, these attributes are simply the ability to readand recognize the sign, to understand the significance of not enter-ing the area, to identify normal conditions, and to know the proce-dure if entrance to the area is necessary

In addition, the secretarial staff should understand the hazardsand risks that exist in controlled areas and that the areas normallyoccupied are safe These skills, knowledge and attitudes becomethe basis for determining the content of an instructional method fortraining

B.1.3 Step Two: Training Design and Development

Even in a small facility, there can exist a variety of instructionaloptions In this example, the medical facility can easily provide aslide or tape program using in-house slides of signs and procedures.Although a special instructor might be engaged to train the secre-tarial staff on an occasional basis, the training might better be per-formed by the medical staff In either case, the individualperforming the training should have knowledge of the job taskanalysis (Step One) and maintain consistency with the trainingobjectives In the example, the training objective can be stated as

follows: At the completion of this instructional period, the trainee

should be able to identify quickly the standard controlled-area warning signs used at this facility and to distinguish them from other standard warning signs.

The next step within the training analysis is to establish thetesting criteria which will determine whether the training objec-tive has been accomplished successfully In this example, properrecognition of warning signs may be all that is needed

The final step in the training analysis is to develop the sary course structure to accomplish the desired training In thisexample, the following two conditions are assumed:

neces-• The supervisors of the secretarial staff will conduct thetraining since professional trainers would not normally beneeded

• The training materials are in the form of printed loose-leafbinders with full-color photographs of signs and areas

30 / APPENDIX B

The supervisor instructs the staff members on the meaning of eachwarning sign, encourages review of training materials both pre-and post-test, and provides periodic reinforcement

A summary analysis of the course structure might be as shown inTable B.1

B.1.4 Step Three: Lesson Plan and Training Materials

Training materials to support this training effort might consist

of photographs, typed pages, binders, pre- and post-tests, and ation survey data The training materials could be prepared by thesupervisor or by training consultants

radi-A lesson plan could be as follows:

B.1.5 Step Four: Evaluation Plan

The evaluation plan for this training program consists of testingthe trainee both before and after instruction to determine knowl-edge of signs and actions The supervisor will reinforce properactions in the work area after the participants have observed initialdemonstrations

Lesson Plan Outline

Instructional Subject: The safety of your office

Instructor: — — —

Instructional Goal: The trainee will be capable of quickly

iden-tifying warning signs that restrict entrance into controlled areas

Training Objectives: Upon completion of this instructional

period, the trainee will be able to plish the following:

accom-• identify the standard warning signs used