Quick study academic comparative religions 600dpi

All the major Western religions Judaism, Christianity and Islam are monotheistic and non­ Pantheistic God is viewed as supernatural and separate from the world.. Typically, revelations c

EVOLUTION OF RELIGION

A ORIGINS

I The oldest religious symbol found to date is the

sculpted torso of a female, the Earth Mother, found

in an ancient grave

2 The oldest evidence for the belief in some form of af­

terlife are Neanderthal burial sites - some 60-70,000

years old I n these graves, the corpse was buried with

various implements and supplies carefully arranged

around it - presumably to prepare it for the afterlife

B DYNAMISM

I The belief that there are forces in nature that

humans can use to their benefit

2 Mana is a force that can be harnessed and magic is

the knowledge that is required in order to use mana

Typically, sympathetic magic is used- rituals that

imitate what is sought; e.g., the rain dance, fertility

rituals, voodoo, etc

C ANIMISM: The Soul or Spirit Worship

I Beliefs about some form of spiritual afterlife arising

from the fear of death

2 Dreams are often thought to be the means for the

spirit to contact the afterlife or spirit world

3 Most animism takes the form of ancestor worship

a Some spirits are worshiped as spirits of the

dead; furthermore anything alive may have a

spiritual presencc

b Spirits may be believed to guard houses or property

4 Some related words:

a Rite: A specific group of prayers and rituals

performed in sequence to achieve a desired effect

b Shaman: Specialists in these rituals, with knowledge

of the spirit world; also called Seers, or Witches

c Cult: A specific set of rites to a specific god

d Taboo: A limited, or forbidden, thing or action

D THERIOMORPHISM

i Gods are pictured as various animals, seen especially

in Native American culture A hierarchy of spirits

exists and may be very difficult to deal with

2 Totemism: The belief that a divine animal created

humans and gave them everything they know

E ANTHROPOMORPHISM

I God or gods take on the form or characteristic of

humans

2 May relate to physical, moral or emotional qualities

F POLYTHEISM

1 A system of having many gods; gods may be viewed

as growing old and dying

2 Stages A-D (above) may historically be co-occurring

with stage F

3 Within a polytheistic culture, the lower classes

typically create more and more gods, while the

upper classes create fewer and fewer gods; this

process occurs simultaneously for the two classes

G MONOTHEISM

I The worship of one and only one God, generally

regarded as immortal, omniscient, omnipotent,

omnibcncvolent, personal and immutable

2 All the major Western religions (Judaism,

Christianity and Islam) are monotheistic and non­

Pantheistic (God is viewed as supernatural and

separate from the world)

3 Some related words:

a Revelation: A message God has given humans in

order to reveal himself Typically, revelations

communicate God's plans for a people, God's

commandments for proper behavior and, possibly,

prophecies of God's future plans or actions

b Prophet: A divinely inspired messenger of God

The criteria and qualifications for being a genuine

prophet often cause controversy within a religion;

similarly, an alleged prophet may face violent

opposition from established religious leaders when

he or she challcnges the religious stutus quo

Hindu ]

CHRISTIANITY

A CENTRAL DOCTRINE

I A monotheistic religion contending the most complete revelation of God was personified in Jesus

of Nazareth

2 Jesus is conceived of as hoth human and divine

a As divine, he is the incarnation of God: He is the Christ - God in human form

b As human, he is the man Jesus of Nazareth, but unlike any other humans, without sin

c The most crucial beliefs in this religion:

i Jesus Christ was resurrected from the dead on

ii God is believed to be manifest in three personas:

Father, Son and Holy Spirit This doctrine of the Trinity is rejected by Jews and Muslims JESUS CHRIST

B CHRIST

I Jesus is viewed as having been born of the Virgin Mary and living a morally exemplary life He demonstrated his teachings by example, parable, sermons and miracles

2 It is claimed as the Son of God, Jesus made a willing sacrifice - through his crucifixion - so that through his blood, those who believe in him would

be cleansed of sin Many Christians view this

sacrifice as an act of grace - a great gift bestowed upon an undeserving humanity

C THE SACRED AND THE PROFANE

I Christian thought is characterized bv a certain duality that divides reality into the profane (to include nature and the human body) and the sacred (to include God, spirit and soul)

2 Historically, Christianity has demonstrated a certain antagonism toward the natural world as profane, and therefore inferior, matter This tendency has at often­

times surfaced in historical Christianity as a negative attitude toward physical pleasure and the human body

D HUMAN NATURE

1 Humans are viewed as created in "the image of God" and, unlike other creatures, have responsi­

bility to God and are morally accountable

2 Regarding human nature, there is some division in Christian views:

a Some contend that humans are inherently sinful from the time of birth and can only overcome this sin with God's help

b Another view holds that humans are capable of acting in keeping with God's wishes aJl(~ through proper nurture and devotion to God, can live morally acceptable lives

c Both views, however, agree that God's grace is essential

E SALVATION

2 Christianity only by accepting Jesus

as one'5

3 Good deeds in themselves arc insufficient to guarantee salvation; rather, good deeds may be evidence of repentance WESTMINSTER ABBEY

after a person is already saved LONDON

4 A person who is saved will live a morally exemplary life due to love of God and his/her fellow humans

5 In sum, worshippers arc saved by grace through faith

F THEODICY

I An attempt to explain how a merciful , benevolent God can allow evil to exist especially the seemingly undeserved NOTRE DAME CATHEDRAL

suffering of innocents PARIS

2 There arc sevcral possible answers to this probleIll:

a Some contend that the suffering of innocents Illay help save others This is most clearly shown in the example of Jesus' sulTcring on the cross for the salvation of humanity

b St Augustine held that human suffering is for the sin of Adam

c Lastly, it has been contended that the suffering of Christian martyrs gave a powerful demon­ stration of the value of Christian faith

d Ultimately, it can be held that the existence of evil is an unfathomable mystery to humans and only to be understood by God

G, FAITH AND REASON

I Historically, the Church has held that unaided human reason can lead to truth as well as scripture

2 Nonetheless, faith and scripture arc thought to be more reliable compasses to truth, since reason is subject to human error

3 An extreme position in this regard is fideism: The \ iew

that on!}' thmughjaith can truth and God be known

c Authority: The Bible was the sole source of authority to be under­

H FAITH AND SCIENCE

I Traditionally, there has been some tension between

the Church and science as to how to resolve the

seeming discrepancy between Biblical and scien­

tific views of the natural world

2 The Catholic Church has attempted to resolve the

discrepancy by contending that Biblical truths are tmths

opemte on pamllel planes and are, thus, not in conflict

3 Current divisions fall into roughly two categories:

a Liberal: This view claims the Bible is only

metaphorical or allegorical when it comes to the

natural world

b Fundamentalist: Claim that the Bible is to be under­

stood as literally true; hence, in those cases when

scientific discoveries are at odds with Scripture, the

scientific outlook is discounted

I ROMAN CATHOLICISM

As the self-proclaimed old­

several principle doctrines:

I Biblical Interpretation:

preted by Bishops and Papal THE:~:~CAN

directive Specifically, the

Pope's authority is held to be infallible in matters

conceming religion or morals

2 Apostolic Succession: The pope and bishops are in a

linear spiritual succession to Christ and as such, their

authority carries, in varying degrees, the same spiritual

legitimacy that Christ conferred upon his apostles

3 Dogma: Certain doctrines are unquestioningly

accepted such as the Gospel of Christ, the wine drunk

and wafer eaten during communion as the literal (and

beliet: in the Immaculate Conception

4 Confession: The church implements a mechanism

for the atonement of sin through confession

5 Saints: Certain individuals who have demonstrated

particularly exemplary moral qualities and can be

verified as having been party to, or performed at

least one miracle, may be "canonized" - i.e., recog­

nized as saints

6 Grace: The belief that though no ordinary human,

no matter how pious, ever deserves or merits

salvation, God freely bestows this gift upon the

undeserving due to his love and goodness

7 Sacrament: An observable sign of something

sacred or a visible sign of divine grace; specifically,

seven sacraments are upheld: Eucharist, Baptism,

Confirmation, Penance, Anointing of the Sick,

Matrimony and Holy Orders

J THE EASTERN ORTHODOX CHURCH

I

2 Besides factors of politics

and geography, the two

churches split due to GREEK ORTHODOX

doctrinal differences over CHURCH

icons, the infallibility of the GREECE

pope and the marriage of priests

K THE REFORMATION

I Initiated in the sixteenth century by Martin

Luther, the Protestant reformation divided

Christendom on several key issues

2 Luther took exception to several doctrines of the

Roman Catholic Church, most notably:

a The Bible: Luther claimed that a

Christian was free to have a ~

personal relationship with God

and the intervention of priests

to read and interpret the Bible

was not necessary

b Latin: The Bible

LUTHER

BIBLE

d Infallibility of the Pope: The infallibility of the pope on matters of morals and religion was denied

e Celibacy of Priesthood: Priests were free to marry according to the dictates of their own conscience

f Sacraments: Luther recognized only two sacra­

ments based upon scripture: Baptism and the

Catholicism has retained seven: Baptism,

Eucharist, Confirmation, Marriage, Holy Orders, Penance and Anointing the Sick

L CALVINISM

I Calvinism's Calvin's

Religion

belief in the

3 Calvinism has traditionally been

a more austere religion, taking a CALVIN

guarded view toward the consumption of alcohol and other pleasures, such as dancing

M AFTER-EFFECTS OF THE REFORMATION

1 The most noticeable effect of the Protestant Reformation upon Christianity has been the fragmentation of mainstream Protestantism into a myriad of denominations, each differing on the particulars of how scripture is to be understood

2 Given Luther's initial emphasis upon the personal relationship between God and the individual, this development is understandable

the Episcopalian Anglican Church

opments, such as Christian Science Saints (Mormons),

Unificationism and others

CALIFORNIA

N POSSIBLE FUTURE TRENDS

I With the evolution of new technologies and social political struggles, Christianity faces many challenges in the new millennium

2 Moral problems posed by such developments as cloning and genetic engineering are likely to raise new challenges to the church

injustice, is likely to remain a growing intluence in developing countries and possibly produce new emerging doctrines relating to the proper relation of Christians to their community

4 Other issues confronting Christians in the new millennium may well include the ordination of female priests, same-sex marriages, increased secularization and relations to other religions

JUDAISM

A CENTRAL DOCTRINE

1 Judaism encompasses some four millennia of devel­

opment; as such, it is a dynamic historical record of the experience of worship of a people who identify themselves as children (descendants) of Abraham (circa: 2,000 B.C.)

2 The basic tenet of this religion is that God made a covenant with a group of people chosen to demon­

strate God's requirements to the rest of humanity; as such, it could be argued that a Jew is accountable to

a higher moral standard than a non-Jew due to this higher responsibility to God

3 In contrast to Christians who accept Christ as the Messiah, Jews, by not accepting Christ as divine, are still waiting for their Messiah

B THE CHOSEN PEOPLE

I Jews think of themselves as being chosen as the people responsible to God

2 It is traditionally accepted that this group studies and follows God's commandments, thus making a covenant with God

C THE TORAH

most important of these is the Torah

2 The first five books of the Old Te comprise the Jewish

origin of the Torah , the language (i.e

the vocabulary and style) of the seems to date from around 800 B.C

whereas Moses lived around 1,200 s

4 The Torah

a Conservative: The Bibl e is word of God and is, thus,

b Liberal: The Bibl e is the product of the interaction of God with his chosen people and a record of their understanding

of God's revelation

5 Historically, a conservative interpretation has prevailed with the liberal interpretation becoming _ _ _~ more prevalent in modern times

D MOSES

I Moses lived around 1,

are part of the Jewish history,

people was renewed under Moses

3 By accepting God's commandments (as delivered

by Moses), the Hebrews agreed to serve God exclu­ sively; in return, God would bring them to tJ,

Promised Land and make them a great nation

E THE NATURE OF GOD

I The traditional characteristics of monotheism reside in the God of the Tomh: God is endowed with omniscience, omnipotence and omnibcnevolence

2 Perhaps most importantly, God makes a covenant with the chosen to protect, instruct and show them compassion; in return, the people uphold God',; laws, worship and show proper devotion

3 God is traditionally conceived of as a personal God

- a God with whom a personal onc-to-one

relationship is possible

4 In some interpretations however God is a flllldamental,

unfathomable mystery.ooG(xloo is a verb not a noun: a process, not a singularity; ultimately indescribable and incomprehensible to the human mind

5 This veneration of God by some Jews is carried on

to the extent they will dedim; to write the word

"Godoo and refrain from any naming of "it:'

F THE HOLOCAlJST

I The systematic genocide of millions ofJcw,; by the Nazis (circa 1933-1945) is the single most signit~

icant pivotal event in recent Jewish history

2 Theologically, it presents a challenge to explain how an omnibencvolcnt God could have allowed such a calamity to occur

3 Politically, it was to underscore the need fix a Jewish homeland and provide an impetus fl)r Zionism

G NATURE AND THE WORLD

I Unlike Christianity, Judaism displays no animosity

to the natural world Though God is supernatural (i.e., separate from nature), the world is nevertheless God's creation Part of the covenant with God is the responsible stewardship over this creation

2 It could bc argucd that desecrating narure dishonors God and breaks the covenant and trust' placed in the chosen people

3 The historically negative anitud.; toward the body and nature as "profane." f,mnd in

Christianity is not present in Judaism

H IMMORTALITY

I Judaism places less emphasis upon an afterlif~ than does Christianity

2 Although resurrection from the dead is a part of Jewish doctrine, Judaism has focused upon a good life on earth and fellowship with God during the person's lifetime

Ii I DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN JUDAISM AND

CHRISTIANITY

I Although Judaism recognizes people of other

religions can serve God and live according to God's

laws, there are significant exceptions

2 Judaism is a monotheistic religion that condemns

I

all forms of idolatry and rejects polytheism

I

Judaism does not accept Jesus as the Messiah

4 Lastly, Judaism considers calling Jesus "God"

blasphemous

J FORMS OF JUDAISM

I Reform

I

a Emphasizes the ethical tradition of the Torah;

the Torah's teachings are pertinent only for the

ethical lessons they teach; regulations concerning

longer thought relevant

Services are customarily conducted in English

2 Conservative

a Requires strict observance of the Torah and Talmud

b Services are generally conducted in Hebrew,

laws is encouraged and

males wear head coverings

important concern

d Allows for the ordination of qualified women as

rabbis

3 Reconstructionism

scientifically-oriented perspective

c Designed to appeal primarily to educated,

intellectual Jews

ethical requirements of Judaism

4 Orthodox

a Retains as many of the old traditions of the

Torah and Talmud as possible

wear head coverings and prayer shawls

ii The service is in Hebrew

iii Members adhere to kosher dietary laws

b Orthodox rabbis generally do not recognize

do not accept rabbis of these denominations as

equals in religious authority

c Although assimilated in the modern world,

Jewish faith without compromise

5 Hassidism

a Members of this tradition consider themselves

the "'pious ones" and are dedicated to the Torah

and leading pure lives

b Although involved in modern society, members

most ancient form possible

c Rcgulations regarding proper diet, dress, ritual

K THE QUESTION OF JEWISH IDENTITY

controversy concerning exactly what makes an

individual authentically Jewish

2 Historically, most agree that Jews were initially

distinguished as a group by their acceptance of

covenant

legitimate Jews The question of whether a

convert to one of these non-Orthodox denomina­

tions is entitled to Israeli citizenship poses a

4 Beyond this, other issues include whether Judaism

=~

ISLAM

A CENTRAL DOCTRINE

I Strict monotheism; there is but one God, Allah (trans "the God")

3 Although Moses and Jesus are also recognized as prophets, Muhammad's message is thought to be God's final revelation

4 The divinity of Jesus is explicitly rejected by Mus­

lims, as is the Trinity

5 Islam allows for belief in angels (for example, the an­

gel Gabriel is thought to have brought Muhammad his first revelation) and the personification of evil

B.MUHAMMAD

revelation from God in 610

2 In the ensuing 20 years, he received many revela­

tions from God; the compilation of these revela­

tions comprise the Quran

3 During his lifetime, Muhammad converted many of the polytheistic tribes of Arabia to a strict monotheism

4 The two sources of the Islamic faith are the Quran and the Sunna

a The Quran is thought to be the direct revelation

of God through his messenger Muhammad

b The Sunna is thought to be the authentic record

of Muhammad's actions and decisions on moral matters without clear scriptural instruction This provides a morally exemplary example for all followers of Islam

I

illiterate,

and sublime nature

the Quran ITom Arabic, for the religious and poetic

impact of the book is lost in any translation Thus, the

D RELIGIOUS REQUIREMENTS-There are five fundamental requirements that a Muslim must fulfill:

I Shahada: A declaration that there is but one God, Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger

2 Prayer: Must participate in prayer, facing the direction of Mecca, five times a day

3 Zakat: An obligatory tax (usually about 2.5 percent) that must be paid to the poor

4 Ramadan: During this month, all able-bodied Muslims must fast during daylight hours This month offasting is in observance of the month in which God

began to reveal the Quran to Muhammad

expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime

E ISLAMIC ATTITUDES TOWARD OTHER RELIGIONS

I Islam regards Jews and Christians as "People of the Book," since Abraham and Jesus are recognized as prophets of the same God as Muhammad

2 Muhammad is viewed as bringing God's final

supersedes the authority of the Bible and the Torah

notion of the Trinity and denies any divine element

in the person of Jesus Jesus and Muhammad are

God to deliver a certain message

4 Given that Muhammad's message is God's last word, it is thought that everyone should convert to Islam, the most perfect revelation of God's will

F SALVATION

I If they are to be accepted by God, Muslims must follow

a very straightforward and clear-cut system of ethics

2 Islam has a clear belief in Heaven and Hell and the appropriateness of a person's morality in deter­

3 A person must live up to the requirements of the

Quran, fulfill his/her religious duties and obliga­

tions, and refrain from prohibited actions

humans will be resurrected and judged by God

actions on their own call merit God:S m e rc y alld goodness

G.THEWORLD

good, a creation of God, there for humans to enjoy Islam is not opposed to science, for

to understand God's creation and in this perspective, science helps us understand

H FORMS OF ISLAM

so, the question became whether the religion should

closest surviving relative) or be determined by the

3 The first division occurred between Sunni and

4 The major divisions are as follows:

a Sunni:

i Comprised of about 85% of all Muslims

be chosen by the consensus of the Muslim community, not necessarily through lineage

iii For Sunnis, the imam is the person who leads

b Shi'ites

the community; he does more than call the

c Sufis

with God

d Baha'i

religions

J ISLAM AND THE WEST

poses a serious problem

3 If fundamentalist Islam becomes isolationist

DOME OF

proper path to

BANGKOK

six traditional

ceremony than religion, speculation and the function count on

mysticism

Buddhism

of improper

is

HINDUISM

A.CENTRAL DOCTRINE

I Although Hinduism is a polytheistic religion

with many gods and goddesses, certain central

doctrines are identifiable

2 In contrast with the Western religions, which

unanimously believe God is supernatural and

separate from the world, Hindus believe that

God is in everything and is infinite, a view

3 The central paradox of human nature, according

to Hinduism, is the desires, wants and needs of

humans are infinite, yet humans themselves are

part of the finite This fundamental conflict

between our infinite wants and our finite being

is the source of all human distress and suffering

Hindus accept that:

a Success is limited and exclusive; not

everyone can be content

b Humans are incapable of being satisfied

are finite

d Material goods and comforts are finite

e What humans really need are Being,

i There are limitations to joy and happi­

ness, including: pain, boredom, frustra­

tion and finitude

ii There are limitations to awareness: Igno­

rance in all its manifestations

iii There is a limitation on being: Death

B HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

I Although there is no consensus on an exact date

earliest known Hindu scriptures) were recorded

around 1,200 B.C., and the Upanishads were

begun around 800 B.C and completed around 300

RC.; the Bhagavad-Gita was written in 563 B.C

historical development began with philosophy,

which developed into a religion, whereas in the

West, the reverse sequence has been the case

C THE PURPOSE OF RELIGION

and wealth are an

end in themselves

and ultimately self­

defeating

indifference to the

Atman-Brahman (godhead), the immortal soul

Brahman

6 Maya is the veil of illusion that makes people

think they are separated from Brahman

D YOGA

1 A method for achieving enlightenment

different because people have

di fferent personalities

types are:

inel incd person

b Karma: Through work, for the active

individual

reflective or intellectual person

the royal experimental type personal ity

control over bodily processes and desires

6 Steps of Raja Yoga

a Eliminating bodily addictions"

conquered*'

c Eliminating physical distractions·

d Conquering breathing mechanisms·

e Control of senses·

f Control of mind

g Atman facing Brahman: Subject object relationship

thinking of "no-thing."

E STAGES ON LIFE'S WAY: The devout Hindu's spiritual development can be broken down into several distinct stages, as follows:

Student: 10 and older Religious education

transcend wants Retirement 30 and older Grandchildren,

true education, yoga Sannyasin Iiberation Contemplative detachment

F REINCARNATION

a The surviving personal part in enlightenment;

the personal soul

b One's essence after death; it is also that which perseveres through vanous cycles of reincarnation

a The total difference between good and bad deeds

b Also describes a moral universe with a moral law of cause and effect

responsibility for their decisions and, as a result of these decisions, accumulate good

d The balance and ratio of the two in a previous life determines an individual's present condition

e Similarly, the individual's present condition and Karma accumulated in his/her present

lifetimes

4 Ideally, one progresses through many cycles of reincarnation and is reincarnated into higher forms in each successive lifetime

certain animals (e.g., cows) may be revered as sacred

6 The end goal of the process of reincarnation is final and complete union with Atman

BUDDHISM

A BASIC CONCEPTS

I Nirvana: The highest destiny of the human spirit, a condition beyond enlightenment;

literally means to "bow out."

2 Arhat: A person who desires nothing and is beyond ordinary human consciousness

Enlightenment, Nirvana and Atman are all concepts beyond ordinary human comprehension

4 Karma: The Law of Karma has no influence upon the Arhat; since the Arhat are completely detached and desire nothing, the laws of nature

no longer affect them

or scripture, the way of the Buddha the spiritual unity and connection between all Buddhas, etc

B SIDHARTHA GAUTAMA OF THE SAKYAS

I The "Buddha" was historically an Indian prince

a He was born in 563 B.C and was shielded from the suffer­

ing in the world by his father

b Eventually, he was con­

fronted with the spectacles

of old age, disease and death These sights deeply disturbed him and set him

on his quest for spiritual

2 The Quest

a At the age of 29, Sidhartha left his princely

b After several years of strict asceticism and nearly dying of starvation, he concluded that asceticism was not the

enlightenment; henceforth, he advocated the Middle Way-a life of physical moderation

3

C DEPARTURE FROM HINDUISM

I The Buddha taught it was not necessary to cycle through many lifetimes of reincarnation in order

one lifetime

2 Consequently, he taught that aspects of religion divert and distract people from the path to enlightenment These are:

a Authority:

i Tends to be concentrated in the hands of a few; jurisdiction over religious knowledge

is carried to the point of abnormality

ii The Buddha sought to eliminate the caste system of India; specifically, he taught that the Brahmin caste made religious knowledge privileged property, thereby making the other castes feel inferior This "monopolization" led to religious corruption and oppression

b Ritual: Senseless, repetitious Originating as magic and superstition, ritual becomes more important

usually leading to idolatry

c Speculation:

d Tradition: Has no logical, useful and should be rejected

e Autonomy: Individuals should themselves and not become dependent upon God as an emotional "crutch."

f Dogma: Dogmatic doctrines

superstition and supernatural beliefs should

be eliminated from religion

3 By departing from these six aspects of religion

separate religion

D SEVEN POINTS OF PROPER RELIGION

1 In contrast to the six aspects religion, the Buddha taught that correct religion had seven distinguishable features:

a Empirical:

relationships that regulate nature

c Pragmatic: Rejection of speculation and

be eliminated by the "Eight-Fold" path

(see section F)

e Psychological: All suffering and negative aspects of human nature originated with a

blurred and distorted

Monasteries are for social support

hctlcr

, "crv

E THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS: Buddhism is a

very psychologically "analytical" religion It com­

mences with a stark analysis of the conditions of

human suffering and proceeds to offer a solution

I Dukkha: Life is discontentment and suffering

The world is an illusion and because we do not

understand it, we

attachments,

when the illusion of " "'B -" U - D "' D =

through

a Six Kinds of Dukkha

i The Trauma of Birth: The shock of birth

causes psychological suffering

ii The Pathology of Sickness: Causes of

sickness are often selt~inf1icted

iii Morbidity of Decrepitude: The fear of old

age, loss of love and being abandoned

iv Phobia of Death: Unrealistic fear of death

Fear of loss of self, being and awareness

v Incurable Disease: Is tied to a very strong

psychological weakness

vi Separation From or Loss of Love: Suffer­

ing due to loss of love, through separation,

rejection, or death

2 The cause of Dukkha is Tanha, psychological

attachment to worldly things and aspirations

3 Overcoming Selfish Desire: Overcoming the

"dislocation" ofself(i.e., being off-centered) and

self-centered emotional and physical cravings

4 Liberation: Emancipation from the cycle of

birth and death via the "Eight-Fold Path."

I An explicit path for correct living

congregate with others who are also seeking

A enlightenment, have a proper social life

3 The Eight Steps:

a Right Knowledge: The meaning of the Four

b Right Aspiration: To know positively what is

wanted

c Right Language: As we think, we speak and

as we speak, we think Speech indicates the

character and personality; by changing speech

patterns, the character can be transformed

d Right Behavior: Proper conduct is essential

The individual must not lie, cheat, steal or

become intoxicated

e Right Occupation: Business transactions

must be totally fair and honest; occupation

must promote and not destroy life

r Right Effort: The individual must exhibit

proper ambition and restraint; he/she must have

the discipline to overcome hatred and evil

g Right Mindfulness: A person is the totality

of his/her thoughts; we are what we think ­

we must think correctly

h Right Absorption: The steps of Raja yoga

G HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

I Buddhism developed into various branches,

depending upon how certain groups interpreted

its answers to the following questions:

a Are humans independent or interdependent?

b What is the relationship between humans and

the universe')

c Is enlightenment to be approached through

love, or through logic and wisdom?

2 This led to the formation of two separate

branches of Buddhism:

a Mahayana:

i 'The way of the large-raft." The individual is

dependent upon others and is part of the "One."

TAIWAN

helps with:

I) Humans need not make religion a full­

time preoccupation in order to reach enlightenment

2) The way to enlightenment is Sodhi ,

through the heart and the wisdom gained

in the absence of self-seeking desire

b Theravada (or Hinayana)

i "The way of the "small-raft"; occasionally also referred to as the "way of the elders."

The individual is alone and must reach enlightenment through independent effort

ii Nirvana is achieved through wisdom and a full time pre-occupation with enlighten­

ment and religion

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO TYPES OF BUDDHISM

Key virtue wisdom Key virtue "karuna"

social environment

"God" is impersonal "God" is personal

TAOISM

A CENTRAL DOCTRINE (interpreted)

I The "Tao," ordinarily translated "The Way,"

can be interpreted in several different senses, including:

a The ultimate reality is unknowable and unperceivable

b The way of the cosmos

nature and ordering power

of the universe

c The proper way of living involves being in tune with

2The founder of Taoism is thought to be Lao Tzu (circa 6th century B.c.), who wrote the Tao Te Chin,/: (The Way and Its Power)

B PHILOSOPHICAL TAOISM

I The goal is to cultivate one's character of

wu-wie: Getting the intellect synchronized

with the Tao

2 This results in "creative-quietude," "effortless­

effort"; a condition where one's behavior

automatically follows the Tao

3 Taoists place great emphasis upon the analogy

of water - it has tremendous power, but there is

no obvious effort to produce it

4 The Tao exists because there is order and

meaning in nature Taoists have a great reverence for nature and living in harmony with nature

C KEY CONCEPTS

I Creative Quietude: A rejection of aggression, competition, individualism and self-assertion

One must live in tune with nature, be meek, humble and indifferent to societal values (e.g., status, prestige, wealth, etc.)

2 Immanent Transcendence: To be present in the universe, yet exist beyond it

YIN& YANG

3 Yin & Yang

life-death,

b There is a harmony and interdependence to all being Everything is ultimately inter­ blended and interacts To grasp this

"Oneness" in all things is to grasp the Tao

A CENTRAL DOCTRINE

I Insofar as Zen can be identified with any doctrine, the most popular rendition is that Zcn is

a "transmission of truth beyond thc Scriptures."

2 Zen has steadfastly maintained that the essence

of Satori (enlightenment) is inetlable and

cannot be communicated verbally It is a fundamental "seeing into one's own nature" that

is beyond words

B HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Buddhism and became combined with elements

of Taoism, becoming a unique religion and not just another variant of

speaking, Zen would be ."tL.:~ :I.-;• • sympathetic to Mahayana

JAPAN

originated in Tibet and initially arrived in Japan

as a form of Mahayana Buddhism

2 Zcn traces its lineage back directly to the Buddha, with a clcar line of '"transmission of the Dharma" from master to disciple

C TWO MAIN METHODS

Current Zen practice call be divided illlo t\\'o distinct methods:

I The Rinzai School: Emphasizes sudden awakening and enlightenment, and makes extensive use of kOlin.\' (see below) It is a more rigorous form of Zen, primarily practiced in Japan

2 The Soto School: A more gradualist approach, placing less emphasis upon sudden insight and

en Iightenment

D ELEMENTS OF ZEN PRACTICE

I Zazell: The meditative style of Zen - seated meditation

2 Koall: A seemingly unsolvable riddle or paradox designed to help the disciple's mind break free of the delusions of intellect and language

3 Sallzen: The supposed "answer" to the kOllll:

this answer will vary depending upon the psychological state of the disciple

4 Safori: A sudden intuitive understanding or insight experienced when a kooll is "solved." According to

Zen, this insight progressively deepens

E THE OUTCOME OF ZEN

I The realization that life is good and it is good to

be alive

2 Development of an objective outlook on lifc

3 Re-immersion in the world with a ncw understanding: To be aware of the infinite in everything

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MYSTICISM

A CENTRAL DOCTRINE

experience":

a Nirvana

c The experience of the Holy

e Kensho

B DISTINGUISHING FEATURES

Mystical experiences in all cultures, times and

religions share certain characteristics

impossible to describe with words

feeling that everything is interconnected and

unified This is meant in the most pervasive all­

3 Timelessness: Time is experienced as "eternity in

the Now," not in the linear fashion of past, present

4 Loss of Self: Ego boundaries melt away and the

experience; it floods over a person unexpectedly

Consequently, the individual is passive in experi­

encing this altered state of consciousness

as soon as the individual tries to intellectually

understand, conceptualize or describe it, the

7 Emotionally Flat: There is neither depression nor

euphpria present in the experience, it is emotionally

the "insight" acquired can be overwhelming

Gestalt" of understanding, such that things (e.g., the

meaning of life) that seemed absolutely incompre­

hensible now seem crystal clear and simple

9 Tremendous Mystery: Oftentimes, the individual

is utterly overwhelmed and terrified of the

nation with the experience despite the feeling of

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ATHEISM

A CENTRAL DOCTRINE

I Atheism is fundamentally a rejection of belief in

children and some members of tribal societies may not believe out of ignorance

2 Atheism is a recognition and understanding of the affirmations of religious belief, which are explicitly rejected Specifically, the Judeo-Christian view of a supernatural, omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenev­

olent and personal God is rejected

3 Reasons for rejection include the belief that God's

the product of delusion and mental illness

Beyond the e xplicit rejection ofthe beliefin th e Judeo­

Christian God, atheism typically claims:

I Empiricism: Only empirically verifiable reality is recognized; any beliefs about supernatural entities

spirits, angels, the occult and spirituality

2 Ethical Relativism: There is no objective moral standard for right and wrong Ethics and morality are viewed as the products of culture and politics, and are, therefore, relative and subject to individual convictions

3 Existentialism: The meaning of life is sought within the individual or the individual's relationship

to humanity; there is no overall purpose to life beyond the events of the biological lifespan

4 Mortality: All life ends permanently, irrevocably and absolutely with the death and decomposition of the physical body; all beliefs in immortality, salvation, or reincarnation are rejected

SECULAR HUMANISM

A CENTRAL DOCTRINE

I Focuses on the betterment, advancement and

approached from a sociopolitical perspective, wherein the betterment of humanity is taken to be a political imperative

2 The increasing power and influence of science is the impetus for increasing secularization and given the

becomes the new focus of morality

3 Most notably, transcendence (i.e., speculation about

physical life span of the individual is important

B HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

century is its modern beginning

2 Politically, Marxism is perhaps the clearest modern example of a form of government based upon secular humanism

C ATTITUDE TOWARD RELIGION

I Secular humanists either dismiss religion as outdated and irrelevant or totally reject religion and see it as a harmful influence in the world

humanists toward organized religion can run the

ignorance about the existence of God), to a liberal atheism (rejection of a belief in God, but

(opposition to religion due to the belief that it is harmful to humanity)

weather, harvest, fertility, etc

B MORAL

providing codes of conduct for appropriate

2 Such codes are generally enforced through the adoption of divine threats of punishment or reward in this life and/or the afterlife It is claimed

prosperity

leaders to legitimize and consolidate their power This is used to justify the so-called "divine right of

upperclass, such as the Brahmin caste in Hinduism

side" propaganda

themselves as members of a specific religion thereby

bonds and identity

realm of belonging to God's kingdom

religion is a form of mental illness, a neurotic defense

I Feuerbach claimed that the purpose of religion is

isfied people are with their lives, the greater their tendency to accept the religious promise of beller lives in the hereafter

J EXISTENTIAL

I Religion, especially orthodox religion, gives a very

is clearly laid out

with the hopc of everlasting life

and our life seems trivial, but being connected to or being