child and adolescent counseling chapter 2

Chapter objectivesAfter reading this chapter, you should be able to: • Discuss ways to understand the needs of children • Outline theories and other explanations of physical, cogniti

Chapter 2

Developmental and

Cultural Considerations

To have one’s individuality completely ignored is like

being pushed quite out of life Like being blown out as

one blows out a light

Evelyn Scott

Chapter objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Discuss ways to understand the needs of

children

• Outline theories and other explanations of

physical, cognitive, and social development

• Define culture

• Demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and

awareness of cultural competence

Children's well being

“A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the

absence of disease”

(http://www.who.int/topicsmental_health/en/).

The Personal World of the Child

SELF-ACTUALIZATION (Fulfillment of Potential) _

SELF ESTEEM (Feeling good about oneself)

LOVE AND BELONGING

( Feeling accepted as a part of a group)

SAFETY NEEDS (Personal and psychological)

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS (Food, shelter, water, warmth)

Child Development

• Physical

• Cognitive

• Social

Brain development

• Structure of the brain

• Processes of the brain

• Implications for counseling

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive

Development

Infancy (learns through senses) Sensorimotor 0-2 Childhood (egocentric thinking) Preoperational 2-7 Pre-Adolescence (need concrete aids for learning) Concrete 7-11 Adolescence

through

Adulthood

Formal (are capable of abstract thought) 11+

Erikson’s Stages of Social

Development

STAGE I: BIRTH TO AGE 1 1/2

• Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust

STAGE II: AGES 1 1/2 to 3

• Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

STAGE III: AGES 3 to 6

• Initiative versus Guilt

STAGE IV: AGES 6 to 12

• Industry versus Inferiority

STAGE V: AGES 12 to 18

• Identity versus Role Confusion

STAGES VI, VII, and VIII

• Adult Stages

2-5 Language, toileting,

self-care skills, self-control, peer relationships

Arguing, demanding attention, disobedience, fears, overactivity, resisting bedtime

Speech and language disorders, problems stemming from child abuse and neglect, some anxiety disorders such as phobias

6-11 Academic skills and rules,

rule-governed games, simple responsibilities

Arguing, inability to concentrate, self- consciousness, showing off

ADHD, learning disorders School refusal behavior, conduct problems

12-20 Relations with opposite

sex, personal identity, separation from family, increased responsibilities

Arguing, bragging Anorexia, bulimia,

delinquency, suicide attempts, drug and alcohol abuse, schizophrenia, depression

From Abnormal child psychology (4th Ed.), (p 34), by E J Marsh and D A Wolfe, (2010), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Copyright 2010 by Wadsworth Publishing Reprinted with permission

(Culture is) a way of life of the totality of the

individual artifacts, behaviors, and mental

concepts transmitted from one generation to the next in a society It is visible and invisible,

cognitive and affective, conscious and

unconscious, internal and external, rational and irrational, and coercive and permissive at the

same time… generally out of sight and out of

mind….People take it for granted

(Vontress, 1995)

• Mistaken assumptions about cultural assimilation

• Different social class values and orientations

• Stereotypical generalizations

• An assumption of cultural bias

• Inability to understand the worldview of the client

Pederson also includes:

• Diagnoses differ across cultures

• Cultural beliefs influence diagnosis and treatment

• Clients express symptoms differently across

cultures

• Diagnosis may vary according to categories found most often in the majority population

• Most counselors are members of the majority

population, whereas most clients are members of the minority

Training to be Culturally

Competent

• Increase awareness of culturally

learned attitudes, beliefs, and values.

• Knowledge of culturally relevant facts.

• Develop skills for interventions that are culturally appropriate.

Cultural Competence:

Awareness

Common Factors of

Effectiveness

• Positive, trusting, therapeutic relationship.

• Shared worldview or a common framework from

which the counselor and the client can work together.

• Client’s positive expectation that counseling will be helpful.

• Rituals or interventions that are effective techniques that both the counselor and the client believe will

lead to positive outcomes.

Fischer, Jome and Atkinson

Cultural Competence: Skills

Must acknowledge the reality of the

Cultural Competence: Skills

Differences among cultures:

• Boundaries and physical space

Cultural Competence: Skills

Suggested Guidelines:

• Make no assumptions—gather information and

re-evaluate personal biases often;

• Learn about the client’s culture from sources other

than the client;

• Admit ignorance about the culture—be willing to ask questions and to learn;

• Look for similarities in order to connect—find common ground to share;

• Be sensitive to client expectations and needs—

together define counseling.

Children’s Ethnic Identity

• Ethnic feelings and preferences

Bernal, Knight, Garza, Ocampo, and Cota

African American Children

Locke suggested that the counselor should:

•encourage young people to talk about themselves, their families and their experiences

•focus on strengths

•ask about social class status rather than making

assumptions

•ask for descriptions of holiday celebrations, kinship

networks, and the role of religion in their lives

•solicit their concerns, and consider using music and

dance as areas of special interest.

American Indian and Alaskan

Native Children

Knowledge of and respect for the Native

American worldview is essential, with

special attention given to the social

contexts and roles that helpers play,

because an individual’s problem is seen

as a problem of the community.

American Indian and Alaskan

Native Children

Herring recommended that the counselor:

•sensitively and openly address issues of ethnic dissimilarity

•take into consideration ethnic identity and the degree of

acculturation of the young person

•consider having open-ended sessions free from time

constraints

•include family members and tribal elders or have sessions in the home

•consider the use of art, dance, music, storytelling, story

reading, puppetry and games

•and include natural healing practices

Asian American Children

Counselors should:

• recognize the difficulty in self-disclosure and the meaning of

restraint as an attribute of emotional maturity

• recognize that an individual’s problems may be seen as shaming the family

• keep questions relevant to the problem and avoid asking too

many personal questions

• minimize confrontation

• keep the focus on present time and on resolutions

• learn common concerns of Asian-American children

• ask about the culture

• and work to gain an understanding of nonverbal communication.

Latino/a Children

Gloria and Rodriguez list the following questions to use with Latino clients:

• How do you identify yourself?

• What does that word mean to you?

• How hard has it been to maintain your cultural values?

• What is your primary language?

• Who are your friends?

• What holidays and traditions do you celebrate?

• What does your family expect of you?

• Who helps you at home?

Biracial and Multiracial

Children

Herring emphasized the importance of:

•developing a trusting relationship in counseling

•understanding that the presenting problem may mask a deeper ethnic identity concern

•being aware that biracial students will often identify with the minority culture

•being familiar with the customs of all students

•permitting children to ventilate their feelings about their identity and its meaning in society

•assisting in building self-esteem

•understanding the link between ethnic confusion and other

developmental concerns

•and involving the family