session2 foundatings of individual behavior

The big five personality dimensionsOutgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive Trusting, good natured, cooperative, soft hearted Dependable, responsible, achievement oriented, persistence R

Foundations of

dotienlong_mc@yahoo.com.vn

The changing nature & scope of

managing individuals

In the 21st century there are new demands for

an unpredictable future –

There is ever-increasing change

There are flatter, matrix-based structures

There are new work methods

More need to balance family demands & work Increased consumerism

Embracing diversity – an

organisation’s perspective

We ought to reflect the style, taste & opinions of our consumers, who represent sexes, all colours

& creeds, all ages & disabilities.

Cultural diversity will strengthen the quality of the company & will make us much more outward-

Defining diversity

Relating & working with people who hold different

perspectives & views, bringing different qualities to theworkplace

Diversity consists of visible & non-visible differences

which will include sex, age, background, race, disability, personality and workstyle.

Kandola & Fullerton

Managing diversity

Does not mean managers champion their own values & try & shift other people’s values to

conform & match their own

Does mean encouraging individuality & at the same time expecting group co-operation & team work

How do individuals differ?

Perception

Defined as the combination of stable physical andmental characteristics that give the individual his orher identity

Including how one looks, thinks, acts and feels

Are the product of interacting genetic and

environmental influences

The big five personality dimensions

Outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive

Trusting, good natured, cooperative, soft hearted

Dependable, responsible, achievement oriented, persistence

Relaxed, secure, unworried

Openness to experience Intellectual, imaginative, curious, broad

minded

Source: Organizational Behavior, 5 th , Robert Kreitner & Angelo Kiniki

Personality and job performance

Studies showed that:

Generally Conscientiousness had the strongest positive

correlation with job and training performance

Extraversion associated with success for managers and

salesperson; stronger predictor of job performance than

Agreeableness

Being courteous, trusting, straightforeward, and soft-hearted had smaller impact on job performance than being talkative,

active, and assertive

One shoes does not fit all people, one personality

does not fit all job situations

Personality and Self-concept

themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moralbeings

Is a key personality dynamic in study of OB

3 related and crucial aspects are:

Self-esteem : one’s overall self-evaluation

Self-efficacy : a person’s belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task

Self-monitoring : observing one ‘s own behavior and adapting

it to the situation

Conceptual model for individual

differences

The unique individual

Personality traits

Is a predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in one’s environment

An attitude results in intended behavior; this intention may or may not be carried out in a given circumstance

In general, the more specific attitudes and behaviors are, the stronger the relationship

beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information a personpossesses

and the conclusions people draw about them

feeling regarding the personal impact of the

antecedent

a certain way based on your specific feelings or

attitudes

“My job lacks

responsibility” “Job responsibility is important”.

Source: Organizational Behavior, 5th, Robert Kreitner & Angelo Kiniki

“I’m going to quit

my job”.

influence

Attitudes and values

appropriate courses of action or outcomes It tends toinfluence to attitudes and behavior

Values reflect a person ‘s sense of right or wrong, orwhat “ought” to be: “equal rights for all” or “peopleshould be treated with respect and dignity”

Sources of values are parents, friends, teachers andexternal reference group

Abilities and Emotion

Ability represents a broad and stable

characteristic responsible for a person’s

maximum physical or mental performance

Intellectual ability Physical ability Emotions are intense feelings that are directed

at someone or something

Is intelligence inherited

Nativists – believe intelligence is mostly inherited (nature)

Empiricists – believe that our environment shapes our

behaviour & mental abilities (nurture)

Galton suggests that genius runs in families & so

intelligence must be inherited

Emotional intelligence (EI)

Expands classical view of intelligence to includeemotional qualities of individuals

Can predict top performance

18 competencies including items such as empathy,developing others, service orientation, change

catalyst, initiative, adaptability, self-confidence

Goldman

IQ vs EQ

IQ

Abilities of logic,conculation, languege,and spaces

From birthControl reasonLittle impact to others

Suit to managerialresponsibility

EQ

Ability to recognize,understand, monitor theemotions, and use it todevelop thinking

Possible to grow

Can control the behavior ofthe individual and othersHave influence to othersSuit to managerial relations

Fit

The Ability-Job Fit

Employee’s Abilities

Job’s Ability Requirements

based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.

What Is Perception, and Why Is It

individuals organize and

interpret their sensory

impressions in order to

give meaning to their

environment

Errors and Biases in Attributions

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate

the influence of external factors

and overestimate the influence

of internal factors when making

judgments about the behavior

of others

In general, we tend to blame the

person first, not

the situation.

Errors and Biases in Attributions

(cont’d)

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency for individuals to

attribute their own successes

to internal factors while

putting the blame for failures

on external factors

Thought: When student gets an “A” on an exam, they often say they studied hard But when they don’t

do well, how does the self serving bias come into

play?

Hint: Whose fault is it usually when an exam is

“tough”?

Frequently Used Shortcuts in

Judging Others

Selective Perception

People selectively interpret what they see on thebasis of their interests, background, experience,and attitudes

Frequently Used Shortcuts in

Judging Others

Halo Effect

Drawing a general impression

about an individual on the

basis of a single characteristic

Contrast Effects

Evaluation of a person’s characteristics thatare affected by comparisons with other

people recently encountered who rank higher

or lower on the same characteristics

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Judging someone on the

basis of one’s perception of

the group to which that

person belongs

Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher

performance of employees reflects preconceived leader

expectations about employee capabilities.

Ethnic Profiling

A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is singled out—typically on the basis of race or ethnicity—for intensive inquiry, scrutinizing, or investigation.

of the decision maker

The Link Between Perceptions and Individual Decision Making

Perception

decision maker

Outcomes

Problem

between the current state of

affairs and a desired state

Decisions

Choices made from among

alternatives developed from

Steps in the Rational

Define the problem.

Identify the decision criteria.

Allocate weights to the criteria.

Develop the alternatives.

Evaluate the alternatives.

Select the best alternative.

The Three Components of

Creativity

Creativity

The ability to produce

novel and useful ideas

Three-Component

Model of Creativity

Proposition that individual

creativity requires expertise,

creative-thinking skills, and

intrinsic task motivation

Creative thinking process

Creativity – the application of imaginative thought whichresults in innovative solutions to many problems

How Are Decisions Actually Made

in Organizations?

Bounded Rationality

Individuals make decisions by constructing

simplified models that extract the essential

features from problems without capturing

all their complexity

Common Biases and Errors

Common Biases and Errors

Availability Bias

Using information that is most readily at hand

Representative Bias

“Mixing apples with oranges”

Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying

to match it with a preexisting category using onlythe facts that support our decision

Common Biases and Errors

Intuitive Decision Making

An unconscious process created out of distilled experience.

Conditions Favoring Intuitive Decision Making

A high level of uncertainty exists There is little precedent to draw on Variables are less scientifically predictable

“Facts” are limited Facts don’t clearly point the way Analytical data are of little use Several plausible alternative solutions exist Time is limited and pressing for the right decision

Individual Differences in Decision Making

System-imposed Time Constraints

Organizations require decisions by specific deadlines.

Historical Precedents

Past decisions influence current decisions.

Cultural Differences in Decision Making

Ethics in Decision Making

Ethics and National Culture

There are no global ethical standards.

The ethical principles of global organizations that reflect and respect local cultural norms are

necessary for high standards and consistent practices.

Ways to Improve Decision Making

Be aware of biases and try to limit their impact

Combine rational analysis with intuition to increasedecision-making effectiveness

Don’t assume that your specific decision style is

appropriate to every situation

Enhance personal creativity by looking for novel

solutions or seeing problems in new ways, and usinganalogies

Toward Reducing Bias and Errors

Focus on goals

Clear goals make decision making easier and help to eliminate options inconsistent with your interests.

Look for information that disconfirms beliefs

Overtly considering ways we could be wrong challenges our tendencies to think we’re smarter than we actually are.

Don’t try to create meaning out of random events

Don’t attempt to create meaning out of coincidence.

Increase your options

The number and diversity of alternatives generated increases

Theories of Learning

Classical Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which an individual

responds to some stimulus that would not

ordinarily produce such a response

Source: The Far Side ®

by Gary Larson © 1993

Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Operant Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary

behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment

Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Social-Learning Theory

People can learn through observation

and direct experience

Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Shaping Behavior

Systematically reinforcing each successive step thatmoves an individual closer to the desired response

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced

each time it is demonstrated

Intermittent Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced

often enough to make the

behavior worth repeating but not

every time it is demonstrated

Schedules of Reinforcement

(cont’d)

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Rewards are spaced at

uniform time intervals

Variable-Interval Schedule

Rewards are initiated after a

fixed or constant number of

responses

Schedules of Reinforcement

(cont’d)

Fixed-ratio

Reinforcement Theory

When professors give random pop quizzes or

take random attendance, students often

complain that they are adults, old enough to

make their own decisions, and should

therefore not be required to come to class How do you reconcile this argument with what we know about reinforcement theory?

What kind reinforcement of Discuss with a schedule classmate.are these professors using? Would a different schedule be

Reinforcement Theory

Recall and write down the three criteria that indicate learning has occurred Do you think that learning, according to these criteria, really occurs as a result of a one semester

college class? Discuss with a neighbor.

What kinds of things would you recommend to a college professor to increase the likelihood of

Factors influencing the learning process

The significance of learning for

managers

•

•

Powerful processes which can lead to positive

outcomes, e.g increased competence, understanding,self esteem & morale

Individuals who enjoy learning are more likely to beflexible in times of constant change & therefore moreadaptable to organisational turbulence

Growing evidence that a learning culture can affect anorganisation’s effectiveness

Components of the thinking

InformationPlace

Diversity

Kline

Action learning sets

Small groups of people who all wish to

develop themselves through tackling live

issues

The sets provide opportunities for each

individual to report in turn on their actions and reflect on the progress they have made

Applying theories of learning to

organisations

1.

2.

3.

Self development – learning what to do, how

to be, learning the ropes Development of others – personal development, development of planned learning events

Development of learning culture – policy development

Develop a life plan

Think about where you are going/want to go/want to achieve

Work out what it is that is important to you Identify stability zones in your life

Involve your family/friends, take account of their need

Set clear and realistic goals and priorities Eliminate the less value aspects of your life