Industrial management

II unit-Management Function : Principles of unit-Management- unit-Management Tools – time and motion study, work simplification-process charts and flow diagrams, Production Planning, Sp

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INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT

I

unit-Introduction : Concept, Development, application and scope of Industrial Management

Productivity : Definition, measurement, productivity index, types of production system, Industrial Ownership.

 For the accomplishment of the goals.

 For effective utilization of the resources.

 Sound Organization.

 Providing vision &Foresight.

 For the harmony in work.

 To help employees in achieving personal objective.

 Development of the society and nation.

INDUSTRIAL MANGEMENT

 Industrial management is now a branch of engineering which facilitates creation of management system and integrates same with people and their activities to utilize the resources.

 Industrial management is structured approach to mange the operational activities of the organization.

SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL MANGEMENT

1 Related to Designing of the production system.(see notes)

2 Relating to analysis & control of production operation.(see notes)

APPLICATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL MANGEMNT

1 Planning Function

 For Designing Conversion System

 For Scheduling Conversion System

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Prepared by: Dr Vandana Mittal,Dr.Ansar-Ul-Haque,Dr.Raj Kumari,Ms Surat Pyari & Ms Anuja Agarwal

2 Organizing Function

 Organizing for conversion

 Structuring of Operation Staffing

 Job & Work Design.

 For Production & Operation Standard.

 For Payment system.

Production implies the creation of form, place and time utilities of different usable commodities and service.

Productivity measures the efficiency of the production system Or productivity may be defined as ratio between output and input.

Output means the amount produced or the number of items produced.

Input are the various sources employed like land Building, equipment, machinery, material, labor, etc

Output Productivity =

Input

PRODUCTIVITY INDEX

Performance Achieved (Effectiveness) PRODUCTIVITY INDEX=

Input Resources Consumed (Efficiency)

 Efficiency is the ratio of actual output attained to the standard expected output It measures of how well the resources are utilized to accomplish the target or result.

 Effectiveness is the degree of accomplishing the objectives

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At the one end of the production system are the input and at the other end are output.

Connecting the input and output are a series of operations or processes, storage and inspections represent the simplified production system.

PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Production Manager

Production Reports

Finished goods storage Inventory Reports

INPUT OUTPUT MODEL (ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION SYSTEM)

 It is one of the basic models of the production system.

 Production system is the set of interconnected input output element.

 It is made up of three component parts namely – Input, Output and Process.

 A wide variety of inputs are transformed so that they give out a set of output.

 The transforming process can be complicated and the design of an actual input and output system for

manufacturing may be expensive and difficult.

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Purpose to Increase Productivity:

FOR MANAGEMENT

 To produce good earning (profit).

 To clear the debt or loans acquired from different sources.

 To sell more.

 To stand better in the market.

FOR WORKERS

 HIGHER WAGES.

 Better Working Conditions.

 Higher standard of living.

 Job Security and Satisfaction

INPUT PRODUTION PROCESS

OUTPUT

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INDUSTRIAL OWNER SHIP

Partnership Joint Stock Company Co – operative Organization

Sole Proprietorship

Sole Proprietorship is that form of Industrial ownership in which Individual Exercise & enjoy all rights related to business

in his own interest.

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 Limited Resources

 Possibility Of Conflict

 Lack of Public Interest

Joint Stock Company

A joint stock Company means an association of several people who contributed money or moneys worth to a joint or common stock & employ it in same business & share among themselves the profit or loss arising from it.

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II

unit-Management Function : Principles of unit-Management- unit-Management Tools – time and motion study, work

simplification-process charts and flow diagrams, Production Planning, Specification of Production requirements.

Management is generic Management principles are general rather than specific to a type of firm or organization However, management is universal only if the manager has become familiar with the specific situation in which it is applied Production technology, customer characteristics and the culture of the industry are examples of specifics that managers need to learn to be effective in applying their generic management

skills Management is creative problem solving This creative problem solving is accomplished through four functions of management: planning, organizing, leading and controlling The intended result is the use of an organization's resources in a way that accomplishes its mission and objectives

Planning is the ongoing process of developing the business' mission and objectives and determining how they

will be accomplished Planning includes both the broadest view of the organization, e.g., its mission, and the narrowest, e.g., a tactic for accomplishing a specific goal

Organizing is establishing the internal organizational structure of the organization The focus is on division,

coordination, and control of tasks and the flow of information within the organization It is in this function that managers distribute authority to job holders

Staffing is filling and keeping filled with qualified people all positions in the business Recruiting, hiring,

training, evaluating and compensating are the specific activities included in the function In the family business, staffing includes all paid and unpaid positions held by family members including the owner/operators

Directing is influencing people's behavior through motivation, communication, group dynamics, leadership and

discipline The purpose of directing is to channel the behavior of all personnel to accomplish the organization's mission and objectives while simultaneously helping them accomplish their own career objectives

Controlling is a four-step process of establishing performance standards based on the firm's objectives,

measuring and reporting actual performance, comparing the two, and taking corrective or preventive action as necessary

The American Luther Gulick and Brit Lydnall Urwick expanded Fayol's list to seven executive management activities summarized by the acronym POSDCORB:

 planning: determine objectives in advance and the methods to achieve them;

 organizing: establish a structure of authority for all work;

 staffing: recruit, hire and train workers; maintain favourable working conditions;

 directing: make decisions, issue orders and directives;

 coordinating: interrelate all sectors of the organisation;

 reporting: inform hierarchy through reports, records and inspections;

 budgeting: depend on fiscal planning, accounting and control

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Each of these functions involves creative problem solving (Figure 4.2 from Higgins, page 118) Creative problem solving

is broader than problem finding, choice making or decision making It extends from analysis of the environment within which the business is functioning to evaluation of the outcomes from the alternative implemented Henri Fayol, the father of the school of Systematic Management, was motivated to create a theoretical foundation for a managerial educational program based on his experience as a successful managing director of a mining company In his day, managers had no formal training and he observed that the increasing complexity of organisations would require more professional management.

Principles of Management

A principle refers to a fundamental truth It establishes cause and effect relationship between two or more variables under given situation They serve as a guide to thought & actions Therefore, management principles are the statements of fundamental truth based on logic which provides guidelines for managerial decision making and actions These principles are derived: -

a On the basis of observation and analysis i.e practical experience of managers

b By conducting experimental studies

There are 14 Principles of Management described by Henri Fayol.

1 Division of Labor

a Henry Fayol has stressed on the specialization of jobs

b He recommended that work of all kinds must be divided & subdivided and allotted to various persons according to their expertise in a particular area

c Subdivision of work makes it simpler and results in efficiency

d It also helps the individual in acquiring speed, accuracy in his performance

e Specialization leads to efficiency & economy in spheres of business

2 Party of Authority & Responsibility

a Authority & responsibility are co-existing

b If authority is given to a person, he should also be made responsible

c In a same way, if anyone is made responsible for any job, he should also have concerned authority

d Authority refers to the right of superiors to get exactness from their sub-ordinates whereas responsibility means obligation for the performance of the job assigned

e There should be a balance between the two i.e they must go hand in hand

f Authority without responsibility leads to irresponsible behavior whereas responsibility without authority makes the person ineffective

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3 Principle of One Boss

a A sub-ordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only one boss at a time

b In other words, a sub-ordinate should not receive instructions from more than one person because

c Therefore, dual sub-ordination should be avoided unless and until it is absolutely essential

d Unity of command provides the enterprise a disciplined, stable & orderly existence

e It creates harmonious relationship between superiors and sub-ordinates

d Without unity of direction, unity of action cannot be achieved

e In fact, unity of command is not possible without unity of direction

Meaning It implies that a sub-ordinate should receive

orders & instructions from only one boss

It means one head, one plan for a group of activities having similar objectives

Nature It is related to the functioning of personnel’s It is related to the functioning of

departments, or organization as a whole

Necessity It is necessary for fixing responsibility of each

subordinates

It is necessary for sound organization

Advantage It avoids conflicts, confusion & chaos It avoids duplication of efforts and wastage

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of resources

Result It leads to better superior sub-ordinate

relationship

It leads to smooth running of the enterprise

Therefore it is obvious that they are different from each other but they are dependent on each other i.e unity of direction is a pre-requisite for unity of command But it does not automatically comes from the unity of direction

5 Equity

a Equity means combination of fairness, kindness & justice

b The employees should be treated with kindness & equity if devotion is expected of them

c It implies that managers should be fair and impartial while dealing with the subordinates

d They should give similar treatment to people of similar position

e They should not discriminate with respect to age, caste, sex, religion, relation etc

f Equity is essential to create and maintain cordial relations between the managers and ordinate

sub-g But equity does not mean total absence of harshness

h Fayol was of opinion that, “at times force and harshness might become necessary for the sake of equity”

6 Order

a This principle is concerned with proper & systematic arrangement of things and people

b Arrangement of things is called material order and placement of people is called social order

c Material order- There should be safe, appropriate and specific place for every article and every place to be effectively used for specific activity and commodity

d Social order- Selection and appointment of most suitable person on the suitable job There should be a specific place for every one and everyone should have a specific place so that they can easily be contacted whenever need arises

7 Discipline

a According to Fayol, “Discipline means sincerity, obedience, respect of authority & observance

of rules and regulations of the enterprise”

b This principle applies that subordinate should respect their superiors and obey their order

c It is an important requisite for smooth running of the enterprise

d Discipline is not only required on path of subordinates but also on the part of management

e Discipline can be enforced if

There are good superiors at all levels

- There are clear & fair agreements with workers

- Sanctions (punishments) are judiciously applied

8 Initiative

a Workers should be encouraged to take initiative in the work assigned to them

b It means eagerness to initiate actions without being asked to do so

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c Fayol advised that management should provide opportunity to its employees to suggest ideas, experiences& new method of work

d It helps in developing an atmosphere of trust and understanding

e People then enjoy working in the organization because it adds to their zeal and energy

f To suggest improvement in formulation & implementation of place

g They can be encouraged with the help of monetary & non-monetary incentives

9 Fair Remuneration

a The quantum and method of remuneration to be paid to the workers should be fair, reasonable, satisfactory & rewarding of the efforts

b As far as possible it should accord satisfaction to both employer and the employees

c Wages should be determined on the basis of cost of living, work assigned, financial position of the business, wage rate prevailing etc

d Logical & appropriate wage rates and methods of their payment reduce tension & differences between workers & management creates harmonious relationship and pleasing atmosphere of work

e Fayol also recommended provision of other benefits such as free education, medical & residential facilities to workers

d As a result, the time, effort and money spent on training the worker will go waste

e Stability of job creates team spirit and a sense of belongingness among workers which ultimately increase the quality as well as quantity of work

11 Scalar Chain

a Fayol defines scalar chain as ’The chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest”

b Every orders, instructions, messages, requests, explanation etc has to pass through Scalar chain

c But, for the sake of convenience & urgency, this path can be cut shirt and this short cut is known

as Gang Plank

d A Gang Plank is a temporary arrangement between two different points to facilitate quick &

easy communication as explained below:

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In the figure given, if D has to communicate with G he will first send the communication upwards with the help of C, B to A and then downwards with the help of E and F to G which will take quite some time and by that time, it may not be worth therefore a gang plank has been developed between the two

e Gang Plank clarifies that management principles are not rigid rather they are very flexible They

can be moulded and modified as per the requirements of situations

12 Sub-Ordination of Individual Interest to General Interest

a An organization is much bigger than the individual it constitutes therefore interest of the undertaking should prevail in all circumstances

b As far as possible, reconciliation should be achieved between individual and group interests

c But in case of conflict, individual must sacrifice for bigger interests

d In order to achieve this attitude, it is essential that

Employees should be honest & sincere

- Proper & regular supervision of work

- Reconciliation of mutual differences and clashes by mutual agreement For example, for change of location of plant, for change of profit sharing ratio, etc

13 Espirit De’ Corps (can be achieved through unity of command)

a It refers to team spirit i.e harmony in the work groups and mutual understanding among the members

b Spirit De’ Corps inspires workers to work harder

c Fayol cautioned the managers against dividing the employees into competing groups because it might damage the moral of the workers and interest of the undertaking in the long run

d To inculcate Espirit De’ Corps following steps should be undertaken

- There should be proper co-ordination of work at all levels

 Subordinates should be encouraged to develop informal relations among themselves

 Efforts should be made to create enthusiasm and keenness among subordinates so that they can work to the maximum ability

 Efficient employees should be rewarded and those who are not up to the mark should be given a chance to improve their performance

 Subordinates should be made conscious of that whatever they are doing is of great importance to the business & society

e He also cautioned against the more use of Britain communication to the subordinates i.e face to face communication should be developed The managers should infuse team spirit & belongingness There should be no place for misunderstanding People then enjoy working in the organization & offer their best towards the organization

f

14 Centralization & De-Centralization

a Centralization means concentration of authority at the top level In other words, centralization is

a situation in which top management retains most of the decision making authority

b Decentralization means disposal of decision making authority to all the levels of the organization In other words, sharing authority downwards is decentralization

c According to Fayol, “Degree of centralization or decentralization depends on no of factors like size of business, experience of superiors, dependability & ability of subordinates etc

d Anything which increases the role of subordinate is decentralization & anything which decreases

it is centralization

e Fayol suggested that absolute centralization or decentralization is not feasible An organization should strike to achieve a lot between the two

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Management tools

Classic Tools

There's an elusive balance between chasing after each new management tool or method, and ignoring the fact that we have actually learned some things about management over the past 100,000 years The best tools are those which stand the test of time, and which give you a lot of leverage over common problems

Quality Control Charts Other Quality Management Tools

 Normal Test Plots

 Process Capability Calculations

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Bar Charts

Bar Charts, like pie charts, are useful for comparing classes or groups of data In bar charts, a class or group can have a single category of data, or they can be broken down further into multiple categories for greater depth of analysis

Run Charts

Run charts (often known as line graphs outside the quality management field) display process performance over time Upward and downward trends, cycles, and large aberrations may be spotted and investigated further In a

run chart, events, shown on the y axis, are graphed against a time period on the x axis For example, a run chart

in a hospital might plot the number of patient transfer delays against the time of day or day of the week The results might show that there are more delays at noon than at 3 p.m Investigating this phenomenon could

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unearth potential for improvement Run charts can also be used to track improvements that have been put into place, checking to determine their success Also, an average line can be added to a run chart to clarify movement of the data away from the average.

Radar Charts

Radar charts are useful when you want to look at several different factors all related to one item Radar charts have multiple axes along which data can be plotted For example, you could use a radar chart to compile data about a wide receiver on a professional football team On one axis, you could plot the percentage of passes caught Another axis would show his yards per completion; another, his completions per 100 plays; another, blocks made; and a final axis might show his interceptions

Scatter Plots

Scatter Plots (also called scatter diagrams) are used to investigate the possible relationship between two variables that both relate to the same "event." A straight line of best fit (using the least squares method) is often included

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Histograms

A histogram is a specialized type of bar chart Individual data points are grouped together in classes, so that you can get an idea of how frequently data in each class occur in the data set High bars indicate more points in a class, and low bars indicate less points In the histogram show above, the peak is in the 40-49 class, where there are four points

Pareto Charts

Vilfredo Pareto, a turn-of-the-century Italian economist, studied the distributions of wealth in different countries, concluding that a fairly consistent minority – about 20% – of people controlled the large majority –about 80% – of a society's wealth This same distribution has been observed in other areas and has been termed the Pareto effect

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Normal Test Plot

Normal Test Plots (also called Normal Probability Plots or Normal Quartile Plots) are used to investigate whether process data exhibit the standard normal "bell curve" or Gaussian distribution

Control Charts

Every process varies If you write your name ten times, your signatures will all be similar, but no two signatures will be exactly alike There is an inherent variation, but it varies between predictable limits If, as you are signing your name, someone bumps your elbow, you get an unusual variation due to what is called a "special cause" If you are cutting diamonds, and someone bumps your elbow, the special cause can be expensive For many, many processes, it is important to notice special causes of variation as soon as they occur

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Other Quality Management Tools

Relations Diagram (or Interrelationship Digraph)

Relations Diagrams are drawn to show all the different relationships between factors, areas, or processes Why are they worthwhile? Because they make it easy to pick out the factors in a situation which are the ones which are driving many of the other symptoms or factors For example, a relations diagram of urban poverty might start out something like this:

Instead of one item following another in a logical sequence, each item is connected to many other pieces, showing that they have an impact on each one Once all the relevant connections between items have been drawn, the connections are counted Those with the most connections will usually be the most important factors

to focus on

Project Pathways for Management

One of the common features of modern management thinking is its focus on methodologies for solving Dr Deming used the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle Marshall-Qualtec espouses a seven-step problem

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problem-solving model The Juran Institute has a slightly different method So does Executive Learning Inc That said, all the approaches, while different in the details, are very similar overall.The pathway, embodied in software, is

a key means of keeping a team focused and on-track It also provides an easy way for managers of many projects or departments to keep tabs on the status and progress of work

Affinity Diagram

The affinity diagram, or KJ method (after its author, Kawakita Jiro), wasn't originally intended for quality management Nonetheless, it has become one of the most widely used of the Japanese management and planning tools The affinity diagram was developed to discovering meaningful groups of ideas within a raw list

In doing so, it is important to let the groupings emerge naturally, using the right side of the brain, rather than according to preordained categories

To create an affinity diagram, you sort the brainstormed list, moving ideas from the brainstorm into affinity sets, and creating groups of related ideas As you sort ideas:

1 Rapidly group ideas that seem to belong together

2 It isn't important to define why they belong together

3 Clarify any ideas in question

4 Copy an idea into in more than one affinity set if appropriate

5 Look for small sets Should they belong in a larger group?

6 Do large sets need to be broken down more precisely?

7 When most of the ideas have been sorted, you can start to enter titles for each affinity set

Brainstorming

Creative thinking requires tools such as the brainstorm and the affinity diagram Brainstorming is simply listing all ideas put forth by a group in response to a given problem or question In 1939, a team led by advertising

executive Alex Osborn coined the term "brainstorm." According to Osborn, " Brainstorm means using the brain

to storm a creative problem and to do so "in commando fashion, each stormer audaciously attacking the same

objective." Creativity is encouraged by not allowing ideas to be evaluated or discussed until everyone has run dry Any and all ideas are considered legitimate and often the most far-fetched are the most fertile Structured brainstorming produces numerous creative ideas about any given "central question" Done right, it taps the human brain's capacity for lateral thinking and free association

Brainstorms help answer specific questions such as:

 What opportunities face us this year?

 What factors are constraining performances in Department X?

 What could be causing problem Y?

 What can we do to solve problem Z?

Building Consensus

The word consensus comes to us from Latin roots meaning "shared thought" Consensus does not imply complete agreement, but does involve seeking a decision with which everyone is reasonably comfortable To accomplish this, everyone will need a fair opportunity to be heard and latent issues must be explored to the

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satisfaction of the group Many different tools can be used to build consensus In fact, all the tools used in quality management contribute to consensus For example, a well-run brainstorming session can get lots of ideas out onto the table and give everyone a chance for input Still, most groups approach a point where they must choose between options, or try to narrow a list from many items to just a few For this, effective tools specifically for building consensus are used

Cause & Effect Diagram

The cause & effect diagram is the brainchild of Kaoru Ishikawa, who pioneered quality management processes

in the Kawasaki shipyards, and in the process became one of the founding fathers of modern management

The C&E diagram is also known as the fishbone diagram because it was drawn to resemble the skeleton of a fish, with the main causal categories drawn as "bones" attached to the spine of the fish, as shown below

Flowcharting

Flowcharts are maps or graphical representations of a process Steps in a process are shown with symbolic shapes, and the flow of the process is indicated with arrows connecting the symbols Computer programmers popularized flowcharts in the 1960's, using them to map the logic of programs There are many varieties of flowcharts and scores of symbols that you can use Experience has shown that there are three main types that work for almost all situations:

 High-level flowcharts map only the major steps in a process for a good overview

 Detailed flowcharts show a step-by-step mapping of all events and decisions in a process

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 Deployment flowcharts which organize the flowchart by columns, with each column representing a person or department involved in a process

The trouble spots in a process usually begin to appear as a team constructs a detailed flowchart

Although there are many symbols that can be used in flowcharts to represent different kinds of steps, accurate flowcharts can be created using very few (e.g oval, rectangle, diamond, delay, cloud)

Force Field Analysis

Force Field Analysis is a simple but powerful technique for building an understanding of the forces that will drive and resist a proposed change It consists of a two column form, with driving forces listed in the first column, and restraining forces in the second

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The force field diagram is derived from the work of social psychologist Kurt Lewin According to Lewin’s theories, human behavior is caused by forces – beliefs, expectations, cultural norms, and the like – within the

"life space" of an individual or society These forces can be positive, urging us toward a behavior, or negative,

propelling us away from a behavior A force field diagram portrays these driving forces and restraining forces

that affect a central question or problem A force field diagram can be used to compare any kind of opposites, actions and consequences, different points of view, and so on

Tree Diagram

The tree diagram is one of the 7 Management and Planning Tools described by Shigeru Mizuno It is used to figure out all the various tasks that must be undertaken to achieve a given objective If you use it carefully and thoroughly, it will give you a better understanding of the true scope of a project, and will help your team focuses on specific tasks that are needed to get something done

Time and motion study

A time and motion study (or time-motion study) is a business efficiency technique combining the Time Study

work of Frederick Winslow Taylor with the Motion Study work of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (not to be

confused with their son, best known through the biographical 1950 film and book Cheaper by the Dozen) After

its first introduction, time study developed in the direction of establishing standard times, while motion study evolved into a technique for improving work methods The two techniques became integrated and refined into a widely accepted method applicable to the improvement and upgrading of work systems This integrated approach to work system improvement is known as methods engineering

Time and motion study have to be used together in order to achieve rational and reasonable results It is particularly important that effort be applied in motion study to insure equitable results when time study is used

In fact, much of the difficulty with time study is a result of applying it without a thorough study of the motion pattern of the job Motion study can be considered the foundation for time study The time study measures the time required to perform a given task in accordance with a specified method and is valid only so long as the method is continued Time studies are applied today to industrial as well as service organizations, including banks, schools and hospitals Once a new work method is developed, the time study must be changed to agree with the new method

Methods-Time Measurement (MTM) is a predetermined motion time system that is used primarily in

industrial settings to analyse the methods used to perform any manual operation or task and, as a byproduct of that analysis, set the standard time in which a worker should complete that task

Methodology

The rating, or Levelling, system used was the Westinghouse or LMS system – so called after its originators Lowry, Maynard and Stegemerten This system considers four factors independently:

 Skill – Proficiency in following the given method

 Effort – The will to work

 Conditions – The general work surroundings

 Consistency – of performance

Each factor is assigned an alpha rating, e.g “B-“, “C+”, “A”, etc which has a numeric value which is applied later This reduces the possibility of “clock rating” and ensures that all factors are considered in the composite rating Appendix 1 shows the model for Causes of Difference in Output on which the LMS system is based

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Layout, distances, sizes of parts and tools and tolerances were accurately measured and recorded on the shop floor to complement the later analyses.

The films were then projected frame-by-frame and analysed and classified in to a predetermined format of Basic Motions These Basic Motions were Reach, Grasp, Move, Position, Release, etc A motion was taken to begin

on the frame in which the hand first started performing the motion and was taken to end on the frame in which the motion was completed This allowed a time for each recorded motion to be calculated in seconds, by means

of a frame count, and then “levelled” to a common performance

Plots of the levelled times for the various motions were drawn Analysis determined the best definitions of limits of motions and their major, time-determining variables, and resulted in, more or less, the structure which the manual motions of MTM-1 have today Later work, using Time Study, gave the table of Body Motions.MTM is complementary to other Industrial Engineering charting analytical techniques; it does not replace them

It should be used after broader techniques have established the Necessity and Purpose, Place, Sequence, Person and Means of the tasks to be evaluated

Unit

The unit in which movements are measured for MTM is TMU (time measurement unit): 1 TMU = 36

milliseconds ; 1 hour = 100,000 TMU

1 TMU = 0.036 second

Work Simplification

Work simplification describes the making of daily tasks easier in order to reduce strain, or to decrease the

amount energy required to complete an activity Work Simplification is a scientific approach to study work processes with a view to simplifying the process such that the work process becomes more efficient and

effective and thereby raises productivity and reduces wastage of labor effort, materials, space, time and energy

in the process of producing a good or delivering a service

Work simplification techniques range from low-tech (such as using no-scrub cleaners) to high-tech (such as using voice recognition software for typing)

Some examples include:

 Using an automated can opener instead of the manual version

 Lengthening a short handle on a dustpan to avoid bending

 Using pre-pressed clothes that eliminate the need for ironing

 Sliding heavy objects or using a wheeled cart to avoid lifting

 Putting an automatic toilet cleaner in the bowl

Work simplification can be useful for people who wish to remain independent for as long as possible, even if they have a chronic health condition

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Allow for Flexibility –Simplification and Harmonization by its very definition allows for flexibility for the UN

Country Team and national partners to apply those Simplification and Harmonization measures that are

appropriate to their country situation and that take into account the financial management capacities available for implementation and that empower recipient countries

Contribute to Capacity Building – The Simplification and Harmonization must be an instrument towards

increased national capacities It needs to be built around national systems and processes and must complement the directions on aid coordination that governments in programme countries are pursuing

Link with other Simplification and Harmonization Initiatives – Simplification and Harmonization process envisages

close collaboration with country offices and national partners, and must factor in and mutually build on the various efforts

at Simplification and Harmonization, notably of the OECD-DAC, World Bank and Regional Banks, the EU and others This will ensure synergy and complementarities

Include other agencies – while the various Simplification and Harmonization measures pertain largely to the four

ExCom agencies that have adopted a common Country Programme approach, a number of the recommendations could apply to all the UN funds and programmes and specialized agencies at the country level The gradual adoption of some of the elements of the programme approach by the various other agencies might enable them to align with the other

measures

Work Simplification has generated billions of dollars through effectiveness and efficiency for organizations that focused

on their people and gave them tools for continuous improvement Over the past two decades, the glamour of electronics has seduced many organizations into treating their people as expenses rather than resources For those organizations whose leaders truly believe that their people are their most valuable resource, the tools of Work Simplification are still available - and better than ever

In 1946, ASME did something that was even then a long time in the making They established a set of symbols as the ASME Standard for Operation and Flow Process Charts Twenty-five years earlier Frank and Lillian Gilbreth had

presented "Process Charts - First Steps in Finding the One Best Way" at the Annual Meeting of ASME in 1921 By the time the symbols were standardized they had evolved into a solid set of five symbols that covered every aspect of work, in any work environment, that can be used with very little confusion The first process charts appeared as a series of symbols strung down a page in sequential order This was (and still is) a simple and effective way to track the flow of a person or a piece of material through a work process.

- Operation An operation occurs when an object is arranged or prepared for another step, assembled or disassembled or

intentionally changed

- Transportation A transportation occurs when an object is moved from one location to another

- Inspection An inspection occurs when an object is verified for quality or quantity in any of its characteristics

- Delay A delay occurs when an object waits for the next planned action

- Storage A storage occurs when an object is kept and protected against unauthorized removal

These days, processes change so fast that many organizations have failed to keep up Their work is undocumented and as changes are made the complexity mounts The simple and effective approach of Work Simplification has more to offer than it ever had However, its use is not widespread It appears that many organizations are focusing their attention on purchasing solutions for their business rather than mastering their work themselves Where the purchased solutions lead to downsizing, the corporate memory is discarded leaving the organization dependent on those from whom they purchased their processes

The Work Simplification approach utilizes the corporate memory rather than discarding it It counters increasing

complexity with continuous improvement and enables the work force to be the masters of their processes It is on the program at many universities and it is being applied in increasing numbers of organizations across the US and Canada; in South America, Europe and Australia as these companies seek to regain control of their operations.

New methods for studying work are introduced on a regular basis Usually they focus effectively on one or another aspect

of improvement but they often fail because they do not deal rigorously with the work itself This is a good time to look back and discover again a simple tool that visually displays processes in a universal language that can be readily

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understood by anyone who wants to understand.

Today, if you are pursuing six sigma or lean manufacturing; if you are using Kazan or value stream mapping, if you are managing your supply chain, developing a b2b strategy, establishing an electronic commerce presence, managing day to day internal operations or documenting your processes for certification or audit, understanding the fundamental steps in your work processes will help you get those things done Work Simplification helps you get there…faster, cheaper and better!

Flowchart

A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm or process, showing the steps as boxes of various

kinds, and their order by connecting these with arrows This diagrammatic representation can give a step solution to a given problem Process operations are represented in these boxes, and arrows connecting them represent flow of control Data flows are not typically represented in a flowchart, in contrast with data flow diagrams; rather, they are implied by the sequencing of operations Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields

step-by-Flowcharts used to be a popular means for describing computer algorithms and are still used for this purpose.Modern techniques such as UML activity diagrams can be considered to be extensions of the flowchart In the 1970s the popularity of flowcharts as an own method decreased when interactive computer terminals and third-generation programming languages became the common tools of the trade, since algorithms can be expressed much more concisely and readably as source code in such a language, and also because designing algorithms using flowcharts was more likely to result in spaghetti code because of the need for gotos to describe arbitrary jumps in control flow Often pseudo-code is used, which uses the common idioms of such languages without strictly adhering to the details of a particular one

Flowchart building blocks

Symbols

A typical flowchart from older basic computer science textbooks may have the following kinds of symbols:

Start and end symbols

Represented as circles, ovals or rounded rectangles, usually containing the word "Start" or "End", or another phrase signaling the start or end of a process, such as "submit enquiry" or "receive product"

Arrows

Showing what's called "flow of control" in computer science An arrow coming from one symbol and ending at another symbol represents that control passes to the symbol the arrow points to

Generic processing steps

Represented as rectangles Examples: "Add 1 to X"; "replace identified part"; "save changes" or similar

Subroutines

Represented as rectangles with double-struck vertical edges; these are used to show complex processing steps which may be detailed in a separate flowchart Example: PROCESS-FILES One subroutine may have

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multiple distinct entry points or exit flows (see coroutine); if so, these are shown as labeled 'wells' in the rectangle, and control arrows connect to these 'wells'

to No or False (The arrows should always be labeled.) More than two arrows can be used, but this is normally a clear indicator that a complex decision is being taken, in which case it may need to be broken-down further or replaced with the "pre-defined process" symbol

For additional clarity, wherever two lines accidentally cross in the drawing, one of them may be drawn with a small semicircle over the other, showing that no junction is intended

Labeled connectors

Represented by an identifying label inside a circle Labeled connectors are used in complex or sheet diagrams to substitute for arrows For each label, the "outflow" connector must always be unique, but there may be any number of "inflow" connectors In this case, a junction in control flow is implied

multi-Concurrency symbol

Represented by a double transversal line with any number of entry and exit arrows These symbols are used whenever two or more control flows must operate simultaneously The exit flows are activated concurrently when all of the entry flows have reached the concurrency symbol A concurrency symbol

with a single entry flow is a fork; one with a single exit flow is a join

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It is important to remember to keep these connections logical in order All processes should flow from top to bottom and left to right.

Data-flow extensions

A number of symbols have been standardized to represent data flow, rather than control flow These symbols may also be used in control flow charts (e.g to substitute for the parallelogram symbol), but they generally have little currency:

 A Document represented as a rectangle with a wavy base;

 A Manual input represented by quadrilateral, with the top irregularly sloping up from left to right An

example would be to signify data-entry from a form;

 A Manual operation represented by a trapezoid with the longest parallel side at the top, to represent an

operation or adjustment to process that can only be made manually

 A Data File represented by a cylinder

Types of flowchart

Example of a system flowchart

Sterneckert (2003) suggested that flowcharts can be modelled from the perspective of different user groups (such as managers, system analysts and clerks) and that there are four general types:

 Document flowcharts, showing controls over a document-flow through a system

 Data flowcharts, showing controls over a data flows in a system

 System flowcharts showing controls at a physical or resource level

 Program flowchart, showing the controls in a program within a system

Notice that every type of flowchart focuses on some kind of control, rather than on the particular flow itself In addition, many diagram techniques exist that are similar to flowcharts but carry a different name, such as UMLactivity diagrams

Software

Any drawing program can be used to create flowchart diagrams, but these will have no underlying data model

to share data with databases or other programs such as project management systems or spreadsheets Some tools offer special support for flowchart drawing Many software packages exist that can create flowcharts automatically, either directly from source code, or from a flowchart description language On-line Web-based versions of such programs are available

Functional flow block diagram

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Functional Flow Block Diagram Format

A Functional Flow Block Diagram (FFBD) is a multi-tier, time-sequenced, step-by-step flow diagram of a

system’s functional flow.The FFBD notation was developed in the 1950s, and is widely used in classical systems engineering FFBDs are one of the classic business process modeling methodologies, along with flow charts, data flow diagrams, control flow diagrams, Gantt charts, PERT diagrams, and IDEF

FFBDs are also referred to as Functional Flow Diagrams, functional block diagrams, and functional flows.

Development of functional flow block diagrams

Figure 2: Development of Functional Flow Block Diagrams

FFBDs can be developed in a series of levels FFBDs show the same tasks identified through functional decomposition and display them in their logical, sequential relationship For example, the entire flight mission

of a spacecraft can be defined in a top level FFBD, as shown in Figure 2 Each block in the first level diagram

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can then be expanded to a series of functions, as shown in the second level diagram for "perform mission operations." Note that the diagram shows both input (transfer to operational orbit) and output (transfer to space transportation system orbit), thus initiating the interface identification and control process Each block in the second level diagram can be progressively developed into a series of functions, as shown in the third level diagram on Figure 2.

These diagrams are used both to develop requirements and to identify profitable trade studies For example, does the spacecraft antenna acquire the tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) only when the payload data are

to be transmitted, or does it track TDRS continually to allow for the reception of emergency commands or transmission of emergency data? The FFBD also incorporates alternate and contingency operations, which improve the probability of mission success The flow diagram provides an understanding of total operation of the system, serves as a basis for development of operational and contingency procedures, and pinpoints areas where changes in operational procedures could simplify the overall system operation In certain cases, alternate FFBDs may be used to represent various means of satisfying a particular function until data are acquired, which permits selection among the alternatives.[8]

Building blocks

An overview of the key FFBD attributes:

Graphical explanation of a "function block" used in these diagrams Flow is from left to right.

 Function block: Each function on an FFBD should be separate and be represented by single box (solid line) Each

function needs to stand for definite, finite, discrete action to be accomplished by system elements

 Function numbering: Each level should have a consistent number scheme and provide information concerning

function origin These numbers establish identification and relationships that will carry through all Functional Analysis and Allocation activities and facilitate traceability from lower to top levels

 Functional reference: Each diagram should contain a reference to other functional diagrams by using a functional

reference (box in brackets)

 Flow connection: Lines connecting functions should only indicate function flow and not a lapse in time or

intermediate activity

 Flow direction: Diagrams should be laid out so that the flow direction is generally from left to right Arrows are

often used to indicate functional flows

 Summing gates: A circle is used to denote a summing gate and is used when AND/OR is present AND is used to

indicate parallel functions and all conditions must be satisfied to proceed OR is used to indicate that alternative paths can be satisfied to proceed

 GO and NO-GO paths: “G” and “bar G” are used to denote “go” and “no-go” conditions These symbols are

placed adjacent to lines leaving a particular function to indicate alternative paths

Function symbolism

A function shall be represented by a rectangle containing the title of the function (an action verb followed by a noun phrase) and its unique decimal delimited number A horizontal line shall separate this number and the title,

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as shown in see Figure 3 above The figure also depicts how to represent a reference function, which provides context within a specific FFBD See Figure 9 for an example regarding use of a reference function

Figure 3 Function Symbol

Figure 4 Directed Lines

Directed lines

A line with a single arrowhead shall depict functional flow from left to right, see Figure 4.[9]

Logic Symbols

The following basic logic symbols shall be used.[9]

 AND: A condition in which all preceding or succeeding paths are required The symbol may contain a single input with multiple outputs or multiple inputs with a single output, but not multiple inputs and outputs combined (Figure 5) Read the figure as follows: F2 AND F3 may begin in parallel after completion of F1 Likewise, F4 may begin after completion of F2 AND F3

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Figure 5 "AND" Symbol Figure 6 "Exclusive OR" Symbol

 Exclusive OR: A condition in which one of multiple preceding or succeeding paths is required, but not all The symbol may contain a single input with multiple outputs or multiple inputs with single output, but not multiple inputs and outputs combined (Figure 6) Read the figure as follows: F2 OR F3 may begin after completion of F1 Likewise, F4 may begin after completion of either F2 OR F3

 Inclusive OR: A condition in which one, some, or all of the multiple preceding or succeeding paths are required Figure 7 depicts Inclusive OR logic using a combination of the AND symbol (Figure 5) and the Exclusive OR symbol (Figure 6) Read Figure 7 as follows: F2 OR F3 (exclusively) may begin after completion of F1, OR (again exclusive) F2 AND F3 may begin after completion of F1 Likewise, F4 may begin after completion of either F2 OR F3 (exclusively), OR (again exclusive) F4 may begin after completion of both F2 AND F3

Figure 7 “Inclusive OR” Logic

Contextual and Administrative Data

Each FFBD shall contain the following contextual and administrative data:

 Date the diagram was created

 Name of the engineer, organization, or working group that created the diagram

 Unique decimal delimited number of the function being diagrammed

 Unique function name of the function being diagrammed

Figure 8 and Figure 9 present the data in an FFBD Figure 9 is a decomposition of the function F2 contained in Figure 8 and illustrates the context between functions at different levels of the model

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Figure 8 FFBD Function 0 Illustration

Figure 9 FFBD Function 2 Illustration

PRODUCTION PLANNING AND SCHEDULING

After taking decisions about the type of business, its location, layout etc the entrepreneur steps into the shoe of production manager and attempts to apply managerial principles to the production function in an enterprise

Production is a process whereby raw material is converted into semi finished products and thereby adds

to the value of utility of products, which can be measured as the difference between the value of inputs and value of outputs

Production function encompasses the activities of procurement, allocation and utilization of resources The main objective of production function is to produce the goods and services demanded by the customers in the most efficient and economical way Therefore efficient management of the production function is of utmost importance in order to achieve this objective

Production system is a system whose function is to convert a set of inputs into a set of desired outputs Production system is depicted under with help of chart Production management involves the managerial decisions regarding design of the product and design of the production system i.e determination of production processes and production planning and control

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(h) Quality Commensuration with cost

(i) Product value

(j) Consumer quality

(k) Needs and tastes of consumers

Above all, the product design should be dictated by the market demand It is an important decision and therefore the entrepreneur should pay due effort, time, energy and attention in order to get the best results

Broadly one can think of three types of production systems which are mentioned here under:

-(a) Continuous production

(b) Job or unit production

(c) Intermittent production

(a) Continuous production: - It refers to the production of standardized products with a standard set

of process and operation sequence in anticipation of demand It is also known as mass flow production or assembly line production

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This system ensures less work in process inventory and high product quality but involves large investment in machinery and equipment The system is suitable in plants involving large volume and small variety of output e.g oil efineries reform cement manufacturing etc

(b) Job or Unit production: - It involves production as per customer's specification each batch

or order consists of a small lot of identical products and is different from other batches The system requires comparatively smaller investment in machines and equipment It is flexible and can be adapted to

changes in product design and order size without much inconvenience This system is most suitable where heterogeneous products are produced against specific orders

(c) Intermittent Production: Under this system the goods are produced partly for inventory and partly

for customer's orders E.g components are made for inventory but they are combined differently for different customers Automobile plants, printing presses, electrical goods plant are examples of this type of

manufacturing

The nature of the process of production required by these three different types of production system are distinct and require different conditions for their working Selection of manufacturing process is also a strategic decision as changes in the same are costly Therefore the manufacturing process is selected at the stage of planning a business venture It should meet the basic two objectives i.e to meet the

specification of the final product and to be cost effective

The manufacturing process is classified into four types

(i) Jobbing Production: - Herein one or few units of the products are produced as per the requirement and specification of the customer Production is to meet the delivery schedule and costs are fixed prior to the contract

(ii) Batch Production: - In this, limited quantities of each of the different types of products are

manufactured on same set of machines Different products are produced separately one after the other (iii) Mass or flow production: Under this, the production run is conducted on a set of machines arranged according to the sequence of operations A huge quantity of same product is manufactured at a time and is stocked for sale Different product will require different manufacturing lines Since one line can produce only one

type of product, this process is also called as line flow

(iv) Process Production: Under this, the production run is conducted for an indefinite period

Following factors need to be considered before making a choice of manufacturing Process

a) Effect of volume/variety: This is one of the major considerations in selection of manufacturing process When the volume is low and variety is high, intermittent process is most suitable and with increase in volume and reduction in variety continuous process become suitable The following figure indicates the choice of process as

a function of repetitiveness Degree of repetitiveness is determined by dividing volume of goods by variety b) Capacity of the plant: Projected sales volume is the key factor to make a choice between batch and line process In case of line process, fixed costs are substantially higher than variable costs The reverse is true for batch process thus at low volume it would be cheaper to install and maintain a batch process and

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line process becomes economical at higher volumes

c) Lead time: - The continuous process normally yields faster deliveries as compared to batch process Therefore lead-time and level of competition certainly influence the choice of production process

d) Flexibility and Efficiency: - The manufacturing process needs to be flexible enough to adapt

contemplated changes and volume of production should be large enough to lower costs

Hence it is very important for entrepreneur to consider all above mentioned factors before taking a

decision regarding the type of manufacturing process to be adopted as for as SSI are concerned they usually adopt batch processes due to low investment

Production planning and control can facilitate the small entrepreneur in the following ways

(1) Optimum Utilisation of Capacity:

With the help of Production Planning and Control [PPC] the entrepreneur can schedule his tasks and production runs and thereby ensure that his productive capacity does not remain idle and there is no undue queuing up of tasks via proper allocation of tasks to the production facilities No order goes unattended and nomachine remains idle

(2) Inventory control:

Proper PPC will help the entrepreneur to resort to just- in- time systems and thereby reduce the overall inventory It will enable him to ensure that the right supplies are available at the right time

(3) Economy in production time:

PPC will help the entrepreneur to reduce the cycle time and increase the turnover via proper scheduling

(4) Ensure quality:

A good PPC will provide for adherence to the quality standards so that quality of output is ensured

To sum up we may say that PPC is of immense value to the entrepreneur in capacity utilization and inventory control More importantly it improves his response time and quality As such effective PPC contributes to time, quality and cost parameters of entrepreneurial success

PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL

Once the entrepreneur has taken the decisions regarding the product design and production processes and system, his next task is to take steps for production planning and control, as this function is essentially required for efficient and economical production One of the major problems of small scale enterprises

is that of low productivity small scale industries can utilise natural resources, which are otherwise lying

Planned production is an important feature of the small industry The small entrepreneur possessing the ability to look ahead, organize and coordinate and having plenty of driving force and capacity to lead and ability to supervise and coordinate work and simulates his associates by means of a programme of human relation and organization of employees, he would be able to get the best out of his small industrial unit

Gorden and Carson observe production; planning and control involve generally the organization and

planning of manufacturing process Especially it consists of the planning of routing, scheduling, dispatching

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inspection, and coordination, control of materials, methods machines, tools and operating times The ultimate objective is the organization of the supply and movement of materials and labour, machines utilization and related activities, in order to bring about the desired manufacturing results in terms of quality, quantity, time and place

Production planning without production control is like a bank without a bank manager, planning initiates action while control is an adjusting process, providing corrective measures for planned development Production control regulates and stimulates the orderly how of materials in the manufacturing process from the

beginning to the end

STEPS OF PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL

Production Planning and Control (PPC) is a process that comprises the performance of some

critical; functions on either side, viz., planning as well as

control

Production planning: Production planning may be defined as the technique of foreseeing every step in a long

series of separate operations, each step to be taken at the right time and in the right place and each operation to

be performed in maximum efficiency It helps entrepreneur to work out the quantity of material manpower, machine and money requires for producing predetermined level of output in given period of time

Routing: Under this, the operations, their path and sequence are established To perform these operations the

proper class of machines and personnel required are also worked out The main aim of routing is to determine the best and cheapest sequence of operations and to ensure that this sequence is strictly followed In small enterprises, this job is usually done by entrepreneur in self in a rather adhoc manner Routing procedure

involves following different activities

(1) An analysis of the article to determine what to make and what to buy

(2) To determine the quality and type of material

(3) Determining the manufacturing operations and their sequence

(4) A determination of lot sizes

(5) Determination of scrap factors

(6) An analysis of cost of the article

(7) Organization of production control forms

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Scheduling: It means working out of time that should be required to perform each operation and also the time

necessary to perform the entire series as routed, making allowances for all factors concerned It mainly concerns with time element and priorities of a job The pattern of scheduling differs from one job to another which is explained as below:

Production schedule: The main aim is to schedule that amount of work which can easily be handled by plant and equipment without interference Its not independent decision as it takes into account following factors.(1) Physical plant facilities of the type required to process the material being scheduled

(2) Personnel who possess the desired skills and experience to operate the equipment and perform the type of work involved

(3) Necessary materials and purchased parts

Master Schedule: Scheduling usually starts with preparation of master schedule which is weekly or monthly

break-down of the production requirement for each product for a definite time period, by having this as a

running record of total production requirements the entrepreneur is in better position to shift the production from one product to another as per the changed production

requirements This forms a base for all subsequent scheduling acclivities A master schedule is followed by operator schedule which fixes total time required to do a piece of work with a given machine or which shows the time required to do each detailed operation of a given job with a given machine or process

Manufacturing schedule: It is prepared on the basis of type of manufacturing process involved It is very useful

where single or few products are manufactured repeatedly at regular intervals Thus it would show the required quality of each product and sequence in which the same to be operated Scheduling of Job order manufacturing: Scheduling acquires greater importance in job order manufacturing This will enable the speedy execution ofjob at each center point As far as small scale industry is concerned scheduling is of utmost importance as it brings out efficiency in the operations and s reduces cost price The small entrepreneur should maintain four types of schedules to have a close scrutiny of all stages namely an enquiry schedule, a production schedule, a

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shop schedule and an arrears schedule out of above four, a shop schedule is the most important most suited to the needs of small scale industry as it enables a foreman to see at a glance

1 The total load on any section

2 The operational sequence

3 The stage, which any job has reached

Loading: The next step is the execution of the schedule plan as per the route chalked out it includes the

assignment of the work to the operators at their machines or work places So loading determines who will do the work as routing determines where and scheduling determines when it shall be done Gantt Charts are most commonly used in small industries in order to determine the existing load and also to foresee how fast a job can

be done The usefulness of their technique lies in the fact that they compare what has been done and what ought

to have been done Most of a small scale enterprise fail due to non-adherence to delivery schedules therefore they can be successful if they have ability to meet delivery order in time which no doubt depends upon

production of quality goods in right time It makes all the more important for entrepreneur to judge ahead oftime what should be done, where and when thus to leave nothing to chance once the work has begun

Production control: Production control is the process of planning production in advance of operations,

establishing the extract route of each individual item part or assembly, setting, starting and finishing for each important item, assembly or the finishing production and releasing the necessary orders as well as initiating thenecessary follow-up to have the smooth function of the enterprise The production control is of complicated nature in small industries The production planning and control department can function at its best in small scale unit only when the work manager, the purchase manager, the personnel manager and the financial controller assist in planning production activities The production controller directly reports to the works manager but in small scale unit, all the three functions namely material control, planning and control are often performed by the entrepreneur himself production control starts with dispatching and ends up with corrective actions

Dispatching: Dispatching involves issue of production orders for starting the operations Necessary authority

and conformation is given for:

1 Movement of materials to different workstations

2 Movement of tools and fixtures necessary for each operation

3 Beginning of work on each operation

4 Recording of time and cost involved in each operation

5 Movement of work from one operation to another in accordance with the route sheet

6 Inspecting or supervision of work

Dispatching is an important step as it translates production plans into production

Follow up: Every production programme involves determination of the progress of work, removing bottlenecks

in the flow of work and ensuring that the productive operations are taking place in accordance with the plans It spots delays or deviations from the production plans It helps to reveal detects in routing and scheduling,

misunderstanding of orders and instruction, under loading or overloading of work etc All problems or

deviations are investigated and remedial measurer are undertaken to ensure the completion of work by the planned date

Inspection: This is mainly to ensure the quality of goods It can be required as effective agency of production control

Corrective measures: Corrective action may involve any of those activities of adjusting the route, rescheduling

of work changing the workloads, repairs and maintenance of machinery or equipment, control over inventories

of the cause of deviation is the poor performance of the employees Certain personnel decisions like training, transfer, demotion etc may have to be taken Alternate methods may be suggested to handle peak loads

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Requirements analysis

Requirements analysis in systems engineering and software engineering, encompasses those tasks that go into

determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking account of the possibly

conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, such as beneficiaries or users

Requirements analysis is critical to the success of a development project Requirements must be documented, actionable, measurable, testable, related to identified business needs or opportunities, and defined to a level of detail sufficient for system design Requirements can be architectural, structural, behavioral, functional, and non-functional

Requirements analysis can be a long and arduous process during which many delicate psychological skills are involved New systems change the environment and relationships between people, so it is important to identify all the stakeholders, take into account all their needs and ensure they understand the implications of the new systems Analysts can employ several techniques to elicit the requirements from the customer Historically, this has included such things as holding interviews, or holding focus groups (more aptly named in this context as requirements workshops) and creating requirements lists More modern techniques include prototyping, and use cases Where necessary, the analyst will employ a combination of these methods to establish the exact

requirements of the stakeholders, so that a system that meets the business needs is produced

Requirements engineering

Systematic requirements analysis is also known as requirements engineering It is sometimes referred to loosely

by names such as requirements gathering, requirements capture, or requirements specification The term

requirements analysis can also be applied specifically to the analysis proper, as opposed to elicitation or

documentation of the requirements, for instance Requirements Engineering can be divided into discrete

activity, which leads to a feasibility report If the feasibility study suggests that the product should be

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developed, then requirement analysis can begin If requirement analysis precedes feasibility studies, which may foster outside the box thinking, then feasibility should be determined before requirements are finalized

Stakeholder identification

See Stakeholder analysis for a discussion of business uses Stakeholders (SH) are persons or organizations (legal entities such as companies, standards bodies) which have a valid interest in the system They may be affected by it either directly or indirectly A major new emphasis in the 1990s was a focus on the identification

of stakeholders It is increasingly recognized that stakeholders are not limited to the organization employing the

analyst Other stakeholders will include:

 anyone who operates the system (normal and maintenance operators)

 anyone who benefits from the system (functional, political, financial and social beneficiaries)

 anyone involved in purchasing or procuring the system In a mass-market product organization, product

management, marketing and sometimes sales act as surrogate consumers (mass-market customers) to guide development of the product

 organizations which regulate aspects of the system (financial, safety, and other regulators)

 people or organizations opposed to the system (negative stakeholders; see also Misuse case)

 organizations responsible for systems which interface with the system under design

 those organizations who integrate horizontally with the organization for whom the analyst is designing the system

Stakeholder interviews

Stakeholder interviews are a common technique used in requirement analysis Though they are generally

idiosyncratic in nature and focused upon the perspectives and perceived needs of the stakeholder, very often without larger enterprise or system context, this perspective deficiency has the general advantage of obtaining a much richer understanding of the stakeholder's unique business processes, decision-relevant business rules, and perceived needs Consequently this technique can serve as a means of obtaining the highly focused knowledge that is often not elicited in Joint Requirements Development sessions, where the stakeholder's attention is

compelled to assume a more cross-functional context Moreover, the in-person nature of the interviews provides

a more relaxed environment where lines of thought may be explored at length

Contract-style requirement lists

One traditional way of documenting requirements has been contract style requirement lists In a complex system such requirements lists can run to hundreds of pages

An appropriate metaphor would be an extremely long shopping list Such lists are very much out of favour in modern analysis; as they have proved spectacularly unsuccessful at achieving their aims; but they are still seen

to this day

Strengths

 Provides a checklist of requirements

 Provide a contract between the project sponsor(s) and developers

 For a large system can provide a high level description

Weaknesses

 Such lists can run to hundreds of pages It is virtually impossible to read such documents as a whole and have a coherent understanding of the system

 Such requirements lists abstract all the requirements and so there is little context

 This abstraction makes it impossible to see how the requirements fit or work together

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