In this study, the interaction between MV4s and different lipid model membranes was investigated using single molecule sensitive fluorescence spectroscopy methods, such as fluorescence c
Trang 1INVESTIGATION OF PEPTIDE‐LIPID INTERACTION BY FLUORESCENCE CORRELATION SPECTROSCOPY
GUO LIN (B.Sc.)
A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
2010
Trang 2This work was performed in the Biophysical Fluorescence Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore under the supervision of Associate Professor Thorsten Wohland.
Trang 3A doctoral thesis like this, involving various fields, would not be possible without the help of many people. I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the persons who provided great help in my study.
First, I would like to acknowledge my supervisor Associate Professor Thorsten Wohland from Department of Chemistry for providing such an interesting research project. I am also grateful for his invaluable guidance, support and patience throughout the project.
I would like to thank Professor Ding Jeak Ling from Department of Biological Science and Associate Professor Ho Bow from Department of Microbiology for their scientific suggestions and discussions on the project.
I am also grateful to all my colleagues from Biophysical Fluorescence Laboratory for their kind help and support. Especially Lanlan Yu for her great advices on the project
of antimicrobial peptides; Ling Chin Hwang and Xiaotao Pan for their helpful discussions
on Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy; Ping Liu, Xianke Shi and Sebastian Leptihn for their kind support on biological relevant topics; Kannan Balakrishnan, Jia Yi Har, Manna Manoj Kumar and Jagadish Sankaran for their great help on the Imaging Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy project.
And last but not least I would like to thank my parents for their understanding, support and love for all these years.
Trang 4Acknowledgement II Table of Contents III Summary VII List of Figures IX List of Tables XI
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction to Antimicrobial peptides 3
1.1.1 Antimicrobial peptides 5
1.1.1.1 Biological activities of antimicrobial peptides 5
1.1.1.2 Origins of antimicrobial peptides 5
1.1.1.3 Structural features of antimicrobial peptides 8
1.1.1.4 Therapeutic potential of antimicrobial peptides 13
1.1.2 Designed antimicrobial peptides 13
1.1.2.1 Designed antimicrobial peptides 15
1.1.2.2 De novo designed V peptide family 16
1.1.3 Mechanism of antimicrobial peptides 18
1.1.3.1 Biological membranes 19
1.1.3.2 Model membranes 24
1.1.3.3 Mechanisms of antimicrobial peptides 26
1.1.3.4 Methods to study mechanism of antimicrobial peptides 30
1.2 Conventional Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy 34
1.2.1 Basic Theory – Autocorrelation Function 36
1.2.2 Basic Setup ‐ Confocal Microscope 43
1.2.3 Combining Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy with a Laser Scanning Microscope 44
Chapter 2 Investigation of the binding affinity of modified antimicrobial peptide to membrane mimics 46
2.1 Introduction 46
2.2 Materials and methods 47
2.2.1 Materials 47
2.2.2 Peptides 47
2.2.3 Small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) preparation 48
2.2.4 Interaction of modified V4 peptides with LPS 48
Trang 52.2.5 Interaction of modified V4 peptides with SUVs 48
2.2.6 FCS Instrumentation and confocal imaging 49
2.3 Results and Discussion 50
2.3.1 Calibration of the FCS setup 50
2.3.2 Modified AMPs are more soluble compared with V4 51
2.3.3 Modified antimicrobial peptide can bind to LPS strongly 55
2.3.4 Modified antimicrobial peptide can bind to POPG strongly 59
2.3.5 Modified antimicrobial peptides show low binding affinity to POPC 61
2.3.6 Comparison between different V peptides 62
Chapter 3 Investigation of the mechanisms of antimicrobial peptides interacting with membrane mimics 66
3.1 Introduction 66
3.2 Materials and methods 68
3.2.1 Materials 68
3.2.2 Peptides 68
3.2.3 Fluorophore entrapping vesicle preparation 68
3.2.4 Fluorophore labeled vesicle preparation 69
3.2.5 Interaction of MV4s with rhodamine 6G entrapped LUVs (REVs) and Rho‐PE labeled LUVs (RLVs) 69
3.2.6 FCS instrumentation and confocal imaging 69
3.3 Results and discussion 70
3.3.1 Modified antimicrobial peptides induce leakage of rhodamine 6G entrapped in POPG LUVs 70
3.3.2 Modified antimicrobial peptides interact with Rho‐PE labeled POPG LUVs 74
3.3.3 Modified antimicrobial peptides interact with Rho‐PE labeled POPC LUVs 78
3.3.4 Visualization of Modified peptides interacting with Rho‐PE labeled LUVs 79
3.3.5 Comparison between different V peptides 79
3.4 Confocal visualization of peptide‐lipid interaction 82
3.4.1 Materials and methods 83
3.4.1.1 Materials 83
3.4.1.2 GUVs preparation 83
3.4.1.3 Immobilization of GUVs on cover slide 83
3.4.1.4 Confocal imaging 84
3.4.2 Visualization of interaction between V4 and GUVs 84
3.5 In vivo measurements 87
Trang 63.5.1 Materials and methods 88
3.5.1.1 Peptides 88
3.5.1.2 Preparation of bacterial culture 88
3.5.1.3 Bacterial assay 89
3.5.2 Monitoring the GFP leakage from Gram‐negative bacteria 89
Chapter 4 Imaging Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy as a tool to monitor the peptide‐lipid interaction 92
4.1 Introduction to ITIR‐FCS 92
4.1.1 Total internal reflection (TIR) illumination 92
4.1.2 Imaging total internal reflection fluorescence correlation spectroscopy 94
4.1.3 Basic setup 98
4.1.4 Basic theory ‐ Autocorrelation function for ITIR‐FCS 100
4.2 Characterization of ITIR‐FCS 102
4.2.1 Introduction to different fluorescence techniques 103
4.2.1.1 Z‐scan FCS 104
4.2.1.2 Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching 105
4.2.1.3 Single particle tracking 107
4.2.2 Materials and Methods 109
4.2.2.1 Lipids and dyes 109
4.2.2.2 Peptides 109
4.2.2.3 Preparation of SLB 109
4.2.2.4 Preparation of GUVs 110
4.2.2.5 Immobilization of GUVs 110
4.2.2.6 FCS instrumentation and measurement 110
4.2.2.7 FRAP instrumentation and measurement 111
4.2.2.8 SPT and ITIR‐FCS Instrumentation 111
4.2.2.9 SPT measurement 111
4.2.2.10 ITIR‐FCS measurement 112
4.2.3 Results and Discussion 112
4.2.3.1 Results 112
4.2.3.2 Comparison of different techniques 116
4.2.3.3 Features of ITIR‐FCS 121
4.3 Utilizing ITIR‐FCS to investigate the behavior of antimicrobial peptides on lipid membrane 122
Trang 74.3.1 Introduction 122
4.3.2 Materials and Methods 122
4.3.3 Results and Discussion 123
Chapter 5 Conclusions and Outlook 127
5.1 Conclusion 127
5.2 Outlook 131
Reference 134
Trang 8
In this work I investigate the action of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with single molecule sensitive fluorescence spectroscopy methods.
AMPs are novel and promising candidates of antibiotics. AMPs kill the pathogen by permeabilizing the bacterial membrane. So it is very hard for bacteria to develop drug
resistance. De novo designed AMPs can greatly enlarge the pool of available peptide candidates, eliminating some of the cytotoxic features of the natural ones. As a de novo
designed peptide, V4 originated from a LPS (lipopolysaccharide) ‐binding motif, showed its good combination of strong antimicrobial effect and low cytotoxic/hemolytic effect. However, its application is limited due to its low solubility. To overcome this limitation, a series of modified V4 (MV4s) was designed to have better solubility.
In this study, the interaction between MV4s and different lipid model membranes was investigated using single molecule sensitive fluorescence spectroscopy methods, such as fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) and imaging total internal reflection fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (ITIR‐FCS), together with laser scanning confocal imaging. A similar mechanism of MV4s compared to V4 was observed: inducing lipid aggregation before inducing the lipid membranes disruption. By comparing different MV4s, we found that a) highly positively charged structure maintained preferential binding to negatively charged lipid, b) higher hydrophobicity gave rise to a higher activity against both negatively charged and zwitterionic lipid, and c) two binding motifs in MV4s may play a crucial role to maintain their activity. A good consistency was found between predicted and actual property of peptides. Further study of AMPs on live E. coli
Trang 9By investigating different members of the V4 peptide family, this study contributes
to our understanding of their mechanism of antimicrobial activity and selectivity. It thus provides further guidelines for the rational design of antimicrobial peptides.
Trang 10Fig 1.1 Schematic representation of the Gram‐negative bacteria cell wall. 20 Fig 1.2 Schematic representation of cell wall from Gram‐positive bacteria. 20
Fig 2.7 ACF curves obtained for titrating LPS into different peptides. 57 Fig 2.8 Interaction between LPS and different peptides. 57 Fig 2.9 LPS dissolved the peptide aggregates. 58 Fig 2.10 V4norv‐TMR, V4abu‐TMR, V4ala‐TMR interacting with POPG SUVs. 60 Fig 2.11 TV4 showed almost no affinity to POPG SUVs. 61 Fig 2.12 binding affinity of different MV4‐TMR to POPG SUVs. 61 Fig 2.13 MV4s showed almost no affinity to POPC SUVs. 63
Fig 3.2 Principle of disruption measurement. 67 Fig 3.3 Comparison between POPG REV and free R6G. 70
Trang 11Fig 3.4 Interaction between different peptides and POPG REVs. 73 Fig 3.5 Different peptides showed different activity against POPG REVs. 74 Fig 3.6 Interaction between different peptides and POPG RLVs. 75 Fig 3.7 ACF and intensity trace for POPG RLV aggregates and fragments. 76 Fig 3.8 Different peptides showed different activity against POPG RLVs. 77
Fig 3.10 Confocal images of RLVs interacting with MV4. 82 Fig 3.11 Activity against different lipids for MV4s. 83 Fig 3.12 V4 evenly and reversibly bound on POPC GUVs. 86
Fig 4.2 Schematic drawing of a prism‐based TIR‐FCS setup. 96 Fig 4.3 Schematic drawing of an objective‐based TIR‐FCS setup. 97 Fig 4.4 Schematic drawing of ITRF‐FCS setup used in the study. 99 Fig 4.5 Schematic representation on z‐scan FCS. 104 Fig 4.6 Schematic illustration of FRAP measurement. 106 Fig 4.7 Schematic illustration on the calculation of MSD. 108 Fig 4.8 Data obtained using different fluorescence techniques. 114 Fig 4.9 Histogram of diffusion coefficient obtained by SPT. 115 Fig 4.10 Dependence of the lateral diffusion time on the z‐position of the focus. 115 Fig 4.11 Comparison of the diffusion coefficients obtained with different techniques. 119 Fig 4.12 An example of ACF curves obtained using ITIR‐FCS setup. 124
Fig 4.14 Another set of ITIR‐FCS data showing different result. 125 Fig 4.15 TIRF image of uneven distribution of V4. 126
Trang 12
Table 1.1 Clinical developments of cationic antimicrobial peptides. 14 Table 1.2 Predicted molecular properties of modified V4. 18
Table 2.1 Comparison between different MV4‐TMR and TMR. 53 Table 2.2 Different MV4‐TMR upon saturation binding with LPS. 59 Table 2.3 Comparison of different MV4‐TMR interacting with POPG SUVs. 60 Table 2.4 MV4s showed almost no affinity to POPC SUVs. 62 Table 4.1 ITIR‐FCS results obtained using different fitting model at various binning. 116 Table 4.2 Comparison of the working concentration and area of 4 different techniques. 117 Table 4.3 Comparison of FCS, FRAP, SPT and ITIR‐FCS results. 120
Trang 13
Chapter 1 Introduction
Due to drug resistance developed by bacteria, treatment of bacterial infections using conventional antibiotics is facing a serious challenge. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are considered to be promising candidates for solving the problem of drug resistance. By directly targeting the membrane of the bacteria rather than proteins crucial for bacteria survival, it is much harder for bacteria to develop drug resistance since a change in the membrane composition would also require corresponding changes
in many membrane related proteins. However, due to their lack of selectivity, the pharmaceutical application of natural encoded AMPs is limited. Alternatively, designed AMPs are able to overcome this problem. Nowadays, different mutations of natural AMPs can be easily synthesized and tested against different bacterial strains in order to
find AMPs with better selectivity. De novo designing of AMPs using computational
simulation further enlarge the pool of available peptide candidates.
In a previous study (Frecer et al. 2004) a series of de novo designed AMPs was
proposed. These AMPs have a common motif of HBHPHBH (H: hydrophobic; B: basic; P: polar) derived from a LA‐ (lipid A) or LPS‐ (lipopolysaccharide) binding pattern. Among the 7 designed peptides, V4 has the best combination of high antimicrobial activity, low cytotoxic and low hemolytic activity. However its application is limited due to its strong hydrophobicity as shown in previous study (Yu et al. 2005). To overcome this limitation, modifications of V4 peptides were proposed in the current study. Fluorescence imaging and spectroscopy were used in this study to investigate how peptides interact with different membrane system. More specifically, the aims are:
To investigate how different hydrophobicity would affect the solubility of the
Trang 14 To study the binding affinity of modified V4 to LPS on the outer membrane of Gram‐negative bacteria, and different phospholipids liposomes which mimic different cytoplasmic membranes to elucidate the membrane activity and specificity of different peptides.
To compare the ability to induce membrane permeabilization for different peptides.
To extend previous in vitro work to in vivo (measurement on Gram‐negative
bacteria) from which more biological relevant results on activity of the peptides will be provided.
To elucidate the possible mechanisms of interaction between AMP and membranes.
To apply new techniques (imaging total internal reflection fluorescence correlation spectroscopy) to study the peptide‐lipid interaction.
The study is aimed to enhance the understanding of the specificity of the V peptide family and their mode of action on membranes. It may also provide more evidence for the hypothetic mechanism of interaction between V peptides and lipid membranes. Moreover, the results could contribute to the rationale of designing novel
antimicrobial drugs and provide useful information concerning new antimicrobial drugs.
Information on the mechanism of the interaction between AMPs and lipid membranes can be provided by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), which is the main technique used in this study. However FCS cannot distinguish between insertion and adsorption when peptides interact with lipid membranes. Moreover investigation could be performed on different types and strains of Gram‐negative and
Trang 15Gram‐positive bacteria, providing a much more comprehensive idea on the effect of AMPs on different bacteria.
In this thesis fluorescence imaging and spectroscopy are proved to be useful tools
to study the interactions between AMPs and membranes and related mechanism. Different membrane models are applied in this study, including micelles, small and large unilamellar vesicles (liposomes). Micelles and small unilamellar vesicles are used for investigating the binding affinity of peptides (chapter 2) and large unilamellar vesicles are used to study membrane permeation (chapter 3). Details in the methodology will be presented in each related chapter. In chapter 4, a recently developed method called imaging total internal reflection fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (ITIR‐FCS) will be characterized and applied to peptide‐lipid interaction study. A final conclusion of this study will be presented in chapter 5 including an outlook on future work.
In chapter 1.1, previous studies on AMPs will first be reviewed, including the
general introduction of AMPs, de novo designed AMPs and proposed mechanisms of
peptide‐lipid interaction. After that, FCS as the main technique used in this study will be discussed in detail.
1.1 Introduction to Antimicrobial peptides
Since the early 1900s, the wide usage of antibiotics almost wiped out all diseases caused by bacterial infection (Breithaupt 1999). The discovery of antibiotics has drastically increased human life expectancy. But due to indiscriminate use of antibiotics, bacteria develop multiple resistances to the currently available antibiotics (Breithaupt 1999; Lee 2008). The fact that bacteria can exchange plasmids, hence spread drug
Trang 16resistance further exacerbates the situation (Hughes et al. 1983). On the other hand, only a few classes of antibiotics have been approved for clinical use in the last few years, including daptomycin, tigecycline and linezolid (Lee 2008). In some cases due to the multi‐drug resistant pathogen, the treatment appears to go back to the so called “pre‐antibiotic era” (Breithaupt 1999; Lee 2008).
In the last decade, AMPs have become promising candidates for novel antibiotics (Breithaupt 1999; McPhee et al. 2005). AMPs are small, with up to 50 amino acids, and usually positively charged (due to arginine, lysine, or histidine in acidic condition) and amphiphathic (contains >50% hydrophobic amino acids) (Reddy et al. 2004; Gordon et
al. 2005). More information on AMPs can be found in the following section (1.1.1) including origins, structural features and therapeutic potential of AMPs.
Normal antibiotics, which are usually bacteriostatic (prevent bacterial growth), work by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell wall or proteins which are essential for cell growth. On the other hand, AMPs being bactericidal kill bacteria directly. However due to their lack of selectivity they are limited in pharmaceutical use, even though designed AMPs can possibly overcome this limitation (Frecer et al. 2004) (refer to 1.1.2). AMPs kill bacteria (Andreu et al. 1998; Sitaram et al. 1999) by permeablizing the membrane, so it is unlikely for bacteria to develop drug resistance since they have to adapt themselves to the new drug by evolving new membranes together with related proteins. More recently, researchers also found that AMPs are also involved in the immunomodulation acting as cytokines to modulate the adaptive immune response (Brogden 2005). But in general, the mechanism of AMPs is still unclear, and further investigation is needed.
Trang 17
1.1.1 Antimicrobial peptides
1.1.1.1 Biological activities of antimicrobial peptides
AMPs are ancient defense molecules which have evolved over at least 2.6 billion years. Nowadays AMPs still remain effective as defensive weapons. The existence of AMPs throughout the evolution disconfirm the idea that bacteria are able to develop resistance to any feasible drugs (Zasloff 2002). AMPs have a very broad spectrum against different microbes, including Gram‐negative bacteria, Gram‐positive bacteria, viruses, fungi and cancer cells (Reddy et al. 2004), with various mode of action (Zasloff 2002). AMPs can be found in different organism and species, including insects, amphibians, mammals and plants, where they act as the first component to defend hosts from pathogen invasion. In higher vertebrates, this is complemented by the response of the adaptive immune system which usually acts several days after bacterial infection (Hancock et al. 1998; Breithaupt 1999).
1.1.1.2 Origins of antimicrobial peptides
AMPs are present in a wide range of organisms. Till now, almost 1500 different AMPs have been identified or predicted from nucleic acid sequences (http://aps.unmc.edu/AP/main.php). This section will briefly review a selective range of peptides originating from mammals, amphibians, insects, crustaceans, plants, bacteria, and viruses.
Peptides from Mammals
The most studied mammalian AMPs are defensins (Hancock et al. 1999; Ganz 2003; Oppenheim et al. 2003). Defensins are divided into two main subfamilies, namely α‐defensins and β‐defensins. In mammals, α‐defensins are mainly present in neutrophils
Trang 18and paneth cells, and the β‐defensins are expressed in epithelial cells and leukocytes. Both α‐ and β‐defensins have high arginine content. 6 cysteine residues form intramolecular disulfide bridges resulting in a triple‐stranded β‐sheet structure connected by a loop with a β‐hairpin hydrophobic finger. But the length of peptide segments between cysteines and pairing of the cysteines are different in the two groups. Apart from α‐ and β‐defensins, another subgroup of defensins with distinct structure called θ‐defensin has been identified (Tang et al. 1999). By an unknown process, cyclic θ‐defensin is generated by splicing and cyclization of an α‐defensin‐like precursor. Peptides originating from human, such as cathelicidins, histatins and protegrins (Reddy
et al. 2004; De Smet et al. 2005) were also found. Peptides from the family of histatins are small, cationic, histidine‐rich peptides isolated from human saliva. Cathelicidin (LL‐37)
is derived proteolytically from the C‐terminal end of the human CAP18 protein. Histatins and cathelicidins form an α‐helical structure in a hydrophobic environment.
Peptides from amphibians
From the first discovered AMP bombinin (Kiss et al. 1962; Csordas et al. 1970), a large number of AMPs have been identified from amphibians, including magainins. One characteristic of amphibian peptides is that they tend to lack sequence similarity (Kreil 1994). There is no homology between AMPs from one species to another. However, all amphibian peptides are predicted to form cationic amphipathic α‐helices (magainins, dermaseptins, and buforin II), or cysteine‐disulfide loops (ranalexin and brevinins).
Peptides from Insects
Since the first characterization of an AMP in moth (Steiner et al. 1981), more than
170 peptides have been identified from different insects (Bulet et al. 1999). Insect AMPs
Trang 19are divided into two groups based on their sources, namely peptides expressed inside the body (cecropin from moth haemolymph) (Hultmark et al. 1980) or outside the body (melittin from bee venoms) (Habermann 1972). Different insects generate a series of
AMPs when they suffer an injury. Drosophila (drosophila melanogaster), for example,
contains 7 different AMPs in its hemolymph, namely drosomycin, cecropin, drosocin, metchnikowin, defensin, diptericin and attacin (Hergannan et al. 1997). 15 peptides, named ponericins, were isolated from the venom of a certain subfamily of ant called
Pachycondyla goeldii (Orivel et al. 2001), which show similarity with peptides such as
cecropins, melittins and dermaseptins. One interesting finding is that Drosophila can differentially express several AMPs in response to various classes of microorganisms, and also show adapted response to entomopathogenic fungi by producing only peptides with antifungal activities (Lemaitre et al. 1997). More recently (Lee et al. 1989; Boman 1995), the broader distribution of cecropin was revealed by the discovery of mammalian cecropin in porcine small intestine.
Peptide from other sources
AMPs have also been isolated from other sources, such as crustaceans, plants, bacteria, and viruses. Tachyplesin, polyphemusin, big defensin and tachycitin were isolated from different species of horseshoe crabs (Nakamura et al. 1988; Miyata et al. 1989; Saito et al. 1995; Kawabata et al. 1996). Androctonin (Ehret‐Sabatier et al. 1996) and penaeidin (Destoumieux et al. 2000) were isolated from crustaceans shrimp, or even from scorpion. Thoinin from a number of plant species (Florack et al. 1994), bacteriocins (Hancock et al. 1999) from Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria and LLPs from virus (Tencza et al. 1997) are identified.
Trang 20Other promising sources of AMPs are synthetic peptides. A series of AMPs have been synthesized by modifying the sequence of their natural analogues, or according to
a prediction of amphipathic structure. The ultimate goals of investigations on synthetic AMPs are to produce AMPs with higher antimicrobial activities and to gain more insight into the mechanism of AMPs interacting with living cells.
1.1.1.3 Structural features of antimicrobial peptides
Within AMPs from the same the species or higher taxonomic levels, the conserved sequences are considered to regulate the translation, secretion and trafficking of the peptides (Zasloff 2002). However, diversity in the sequences of AMPs is high such that the same peptide sequence is rarely conserved in two different species, even when they are closely related. This diversity of AMP sequences indicates adaptation of different species to the environment. The biological activity of individual peptides can be dramatically changed by a single mutation in its sequence. Thus the species could survive by emergence of beneficial mutations from different individuals (Zasloff 2002). Due to the great diversity in AMPs, we can only categorize them based on their structural features. Different reviews have provided various classifications based on different criteria (Boman 1995; Blondelle et al. 1999; Epand et al. 1999; Reddy et al. 2004; Brogden 2005; McPhee et al. 2005). In this work, AMPs will be categorized according to their secondary structure.
α‐helical antimicrobial peptides
Cationic linear α‐helical AMPs may be the most widely spread and best characterized peptides, including melittin, magainin, cecropin, cathelicidin (Blondelle et
al. 1999; McPhee et al. 2005) as well as a number of de novo designed AMPs (Dathe et
Trang 21al. 1996; Dathe et al. 1997; Wieprecht et al. 1997; Dathe et al. 2002). In aqueous solution, many of these peptides exist in a disordered structure. However upon interaction with hydrophobic solvents or surfaces such as trifluoroethanol, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) micelles or phospholipid vesicles, they fold into an α‐helical conformation. α‐helical peptides are often found to be amphipathic, and thus can adsorb onto bacterial membrane surfaces and insert into the lipid membranes as a cluster of helical bundles. However, there are also α‐helical peptides that are hydrophobic (gramicidin A) or even slightly anionic (alamethicin) (Epand et al. 1999). In general, an amphipathic helical structure is considered to be important for antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity. For example magainin loses its helical structure and antimicrobial activity when only few amino acids were replaced with their D‐isomers (Chen et al. 1988), even though exceptions to this do exist. By adding some D‐amino acid residues, α‐helical pardaxin (Oren et al. 1999) was converted to β‐structure, losing hemolytic activity but keeping antimicrobial activity. Thus the structure‐activity relation is still under debate.
β‐sheet antimicrobial peptides
These peptides constitute a large family of cyclic peptides in the presence of two
or more β‐strands stabilized by one or more intramolecular disulfide bonds. In aqueous solution they mainly exist as β‐sheets, which are further stabilized upon interaction with lipid surfaces (Blondelle et al. 1999). Among all β‐sheet AMPs, defensins are the best‐characterized subgroup. Both α‐defensins and β‐defensins contain 3 β‐strands and 6 cysteines which form 3 disulfide bonds, namely between C1‐C6 (disulfide bond between
1st cysteine and 6th cysteine), C2‐C4, C3‐C5 for α‐defensins and C1‐C5, C2‐C4, C3‐C6 for
Trang 22A subgroup of these peptides may relate to β‐hairpin AMPs, e.g. bactenecins from cattle neutrophils are cyclic peptides containing one disulphide bond and a β‐turn. There are also peptides whose backbones are covalently cyclized, such as gramicidin S and polymyxin B (Hancock et al. 1999).
Extended antimicrobial peptides
Extended AMPs are a class of peptides lacking a typical secondary structure. They are usually rich in one or more specific amino acids (McPhee et al. 2005). Tritrpticins and indolicidins are examples of this class. They are rich in tryptophan residues, namely 3 and 5 tryptophan residues in their total 13 amino acids. They form a boat‐like structure when binding to diphosphatidylcholine (DPC) (Schibli et al. 1999; Rozek et al. 2000). The
Trang 23tryptophan‐rich region in the middle of the peptides interacts with one layer of the membrane, and orients the two termini toward the aqueous environment. Other peptides, such as histatin isolated from human saliva is rich in histidine residues (18‐29%) and highly cationic (De Smet et al. 2005). Bac‐5 and Bac‐7 identified in bovine neutropils are rich in proline. PR‐39 found in porcine neutrophils is rich in proline and arginine (Agerberth et al. 1991). Peptides rich in glycine can be found in amphibians and insects (Otvos 2000; Orivel et al. 2001). Glycine‐rich peptides may show structural similarity to peptides such as melittin, cecropin or attacin.
Although AMPs show large variation in their structures, they do share some common features (Brogden 2005).
(1) The usual size of AMPs is small, and ranges from 6 to 59 amino acids.
(2) Most natural AMPs are positively charged. They are cationic peptides rich in arginine and lysine. The net charge usually ranges from +2 to +9 and varies with pH. The positive charge facilitates the selective binding of peptides to negatively charged membranes of both Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria. Anionic peptides rich in aspartic and glutamic acids also exist. However, a local cationic part is needed to interact with negatively charged lipids. Subtilosin A is an anionic peptide, though its lysine‐rich part facilitates its binding to the lipid membrane (Thennarasu et al. 2005). Anionic peptides complexed with zinc or highly cationic peptides are often more active than neutral peptides or those with a lower charge. However there is no direct correlation between the number and position of positive charged amino acids and antimicrobial activity and specificity. Highly cationic peptides may have lower or even lose antimicrobial activity (Dathe et al. 1999). The optimal charge was found to be between +4 and +6 (Tossi et al. 2000).
Trang 24(3) Studies have shown that amphipathicity of AMPs is crucial regardless of their secondary structure (Blondelle et al. 1992; Dathe et al. 1999; Kondejewski et al. 1999; Park et al. 2005). In an AMP, hydrophilic amino acid residues are located on one side of the peptide molecule and hydrophobic amino acids are located on the opposite side. For α‐helical peptides, amphipathicity is often defined as the vector sum of hydrophobicity indices, which indicates the spatial separation between hydrophilic and hydrophobic side chains. Usually, increasing amphipathicity can lead to an increasing hemolytic activity and decreasing antimicrobial activity (Dathe et al. 1999; Kondejewski et al. 1999).
(4) The hydrophobic faces of the molecule enable soluble peptides in aqueous solution to partition into hydrophobic lipid bilayers. Thus hydrophobicity is expected to strongly regulate membrane activity of AMPs. Hydrophobicity is expressed as the average of the numeric hydrophobicity values of all amino acid residues (Eisenberg et al. 1984). Increasing hydrophobicity is related to an enhanced hemolytic effect (Dathe et al. 1999). However, the relation between hydrophobicity and antimicrobial activity is still debated.
(5) As mentioned above, AMPs can adopt a series of secondary structures. Peptides with α‐helix and γ‐core motif (defensin‐like structure) often show higher activity compared to those with less‐defined structures. For α‐helical peptides, higher helicity can facilitate a better spatial distribution of hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids, resulting in higher amphipathicity. However, in designing an AMP, helicity is always closely related to both amphipathicity and hydrophobicity. The reduction of disulfide bonds presented in β‐sheet structures may change the activity or even mechanism of the interaction of peptides (Andreu et al. 1998).
Trang 25With high occurrence of bacterial resistance towards antibiotics, it is urgent need for discovering and developing novel classes of drugs to control bacterial infections. AMPs which target the membrane make it difficult for bacteria to develop drug resistance, and hence are promising candidates to achieve this target.
1.1.2 Designed antimicrobial peptides
The previous section briefly induces researches on natural AMPs recently. A large numbers of natural AMPs have been identified which show a broad spectrum against different pathogens. For example, magainins show antimicrobial activity against Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria, fungi, protozoa and even viruses (Zasloff 1987; Zasloff et al. 1988; Schuster et al. 1992). Gramicidin S, also show good performance against Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria, and certain fungi (Kondejewski et al. 1996; Prenner et al. 1999). However natural AMPs are often cytotoxic against mammalian cells, and this limits their potential in pharmaceutical applications. Thus large efforts have been undertaken to modify native AMPs or design new synthetic peptides in order to obtain AMPs showing better specificity against microbes with lower
Trang 27Hybrid peptides such as HP‐MA, HP‐ME (Helicobacter pylori ribosomal protein L1 and
magainin 2 or melittin) (Kim et al. 2002) and cecropin A (1‐13)‐melittin (1‐13) (Boman et
al. 1989) show higher or similar antimicrobial activity against Gram‐negative and Gram‐positive bacteria compared to its protein or AMP precursors, whereas the hemolytic effect was abolished. Another study (Lee et al. 2004) on the structure‐activity
Trang 28relationship was performed on hybrid peptide cecropin A (1–8)‐magainin 2 (1–12), which suggest the amino acid residue at position 16 drastically affects its antimicrobial and
antiviral activity. De novo design is another important way to produce new peptides. DeGrado et al. reported the first de novo design of antibacterial β‐peptides and later a
series of helical β‐peptides (Hamuro et al. 1999; Liu et al. 2001). GS14K4 (Lee et al. 2003)
is a de novo design based on the framework of gramicidin S. Study on GS14K4 and its
analog shows that higher hydrophobicity is required against Gram‐positive bacteria and yeast compared to Gram‐negative bacteria. Shai et al. designed a group of diastereomer (containing D‐ and L‐amino acids) AMPs showing no hemolytic effect (Shai et al. 2001; Shai 2002).
Due to the small size of AMPs, it is relatively easy to synthesize peptides and their different analogs chemically. The study on characteristics of these newly designed peptides can give guidance in rational designing AMPs to fulfill different pharmaceutical requirements.
1.1.2.2 De novo designed V peptide family
Early studies revealed an amphipathic highly cationic LPS‐ (lipopolysaccharide) or LA‐ (lipid A) binding motif from the endotoxin‐binding host defense protein (Hoess et al. 1993; Ried et al. 1996). LPS, one of the components forming the outer membrane of Gram‐negative bacteria (refer to 1.1.3.1 for details), is shed during infection and lysis of bacteria (Tracey et al. 1987). The released LPS will cause endotoxemia, one of the leading causes of death in the developed world (Parillo 1993). Developing novel classes
of AMPs neutralizing LPS can help to lower the risk of suffering endotoxic shock during and after treatment of bacterial infection (Hancock 1999). The eradication of Gram‐
Trang 29negative bacteria by cationic peptides targeting LPS (Boman 1995; Gough et al. 1996;
Hancock 1999) brings the idea of de novo design of AMPs based on this LPS‐/LA‐ binding
motif.
Previous studies proposed a relatively short symmetric amphipathic peptide sequence HBHPHBH and HBHBHBH (where B is a cationic residue, H is a hydrophobic residue, and P is a polar residue) (Frecer et al. 2000; Frecer et al. 2004). The designed peptides adopt β‐sheet conformation (Frecer et al. 2004), and strongly bind to the bisphosphorylated glucosamine disaccharide head group of LA, primarily by ion‐pair formation between anionic phosphates of LA and the cationic side chains. Among all these peptides, V4 (CVKVQVKVGSGVKVQVKVC, cyclized between two cysteines) shows the most outstanding performances. Both molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and experimental data indicate its high specificity, high antimicrobial activity, low cytotoxic activity and low hemolytic activity (Frecer et al. 2004; Yu et al. 2005; Yu et al. 2009). However due to the high percentage of valine presented in V4, it is highly hydrophobic resulting in aggregation in solution (Yu et al. 2005). Even DMSO, detergent and LPS cannot fully dissolve V4. These aggregates are considered to be biologically inactive. The fact that only 0.77% of the peptide is dissolved and active greatly limits the application of V4. To improve its performance, V4 can be redesigned to contain a higher percentage of polar amino acids or hydrophobic valine residues replaced with more hydrophilic amino acids.
In this study, a series of modified V4 (MV4) peptides are designed (table 1.2, information provided by V. Frecer), including truncated V4 (TV4), V4‐norvaline (V4norv), V4‐aminobutyric acid (V4abu) and V4‐alanine (V4ala). TV4, as the name implies, is only a portion of the original V4. It contains only one binding motif, and the sequence is
Trang 30VKVQVKVGSG. V4norv, V4abu and V4ala have exactly the same sequence as V4 except all the valines are substituted by L‐norvalines, L‐2‐aminobutyric acids and L‐alanine, respectively. Some predicted properties of the new analogs are listed in table 1.2. It is expected that with less hydrophobic amino acids forming the nonpolar face, the extent
of aggregation is decreasing whereas the predicted antimicrobial activities remain almost the same.
b Amino acid forming the nonpolar face;
c H side chain lipophilicity coefficient;
d Number of replaced H residues;
e Amphipathicity index (AI) was defined as the sum of experimental amino acid side chain lipophilicity parameters π over the subset containing B/P residues (all residues with odd sequential numbers in V4) and forming the polar face of the cyclic peptide as: AI = ΣiPF (π)i (PF = polar face) The π is defined by means
of interphase partitioning coefficients (P o/w ) of the side chains measured in the n-octanol/water system (Fauchere 1996);
f lipophilicity index (Π o/w ) of the peptides was derived as the sum of lipophilicity parameters π o/w as: Π o/w =
Σi (π)i over all residues;
g averaged antimicrobial potency predicted from the QSAR model: ln(MIC ave ) = 9.49 Q M +10.17 AI- 0.05
Π o/w - 22.16 derived for V peptides (Frecer et al 2004); experimentally determined for original V4, predicted for analogs
1.1.3 Mechanism of antimicrobial peptides
For both natural and designed AMPs, with low cytotoxicity they can selectively kill microbes without harming the host. This selectivity makes AMPs a promising new class
of antibiotics. As mentioned earlier, researchers believe that AMPs target the bacterial cell membrane which protects the cells from the environment. And due to their highly cationic property, AMPs show a strong affinity to the negatively charged surface of
Trang 31bacterial membranes. In this case, AMPs can distinguish microbes and host cells by the recognition of particular molecules that are common to pathogens but absent for host, especially molecules on bacterial membranes. In this section the target, which is the bacterial cell membrane, and the mechanism of AMPs will be discussed.
1.1.3.1 Biological membranes
The unique compositional and structural features of bacterial cell membranes are shown in Fig 1.1 and 1.2 (Alberts 2002; Varki et al. 2002). A polymer layer called the peptidoglycan layer is located immediately outside the inner membrane. Poly‐N‐acetylglucosamine and N‐acetylmuramic acid residues are cross‐linked to form a mesh‐like layer which provides the structural strength of the bacterial cell wall. Bacteria are categorized into two main types, Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria, depending
on their thickness of the peptidoglycan layer. The peptidoglycan layer is significantly thicker in Gram‐positive bacteria (20 – 80 nm) than in Gram‐negative bacteria (7 – 8 nm). Outside the peptidoglycan layer, there is another outer membrane rich in polysaccharides. In Gram‐positive bacteria, polysaccharides (teichoic acids) and its lipid‐linked analogs (lipoteichoic), embedded in this outer membrane, are negatively charged. Likewise, lipopolysaccharides (LPS) present in the Gram‐negative bacteria outer membrane are negatively charged. Thus the outer membrane of bacteria is highly negatively charged for both types of bacteria. In addition to the outer membrane, the outer leaflet of the bacterial inner membrane is also highly populated with negatively charged phospholipids. In constrast, the outer leaflet of mammalian cells is mainly composed of zwitterionic lipids, most of the negatively charged lipids are segregated into the inner leaflet, thus possessing a neutrally charged outer surface (Matsuzaki 1999).
Trang 32The difference in the surface charge between bacterial and mammalian cells gives rise to the different affinity of AMPs to pathogens or host cells. Research also showed that cancerous cells lose their lipid asymmetry and express negatively charged lipids on the outer leaflet, which can facilitate the antitumor activity of AMPs (Utsugi et al. 1991).
Fig 1.1 Schematic representation of the Gram-negative bacteria cell wall showing several layers of polysaccharides and glycoconjugates, with reference from Essentials of glycobiology (Varki et al 2002) Red lipid indicates phosphatidyl-ethanolamine Yellow lipid indicates phosphatidylglycerol
Fig 1.2 Schematic representation of cell wall from Gram-positive bacteria, with reference from Essentials of glycobiology (Varki et al 2002) Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker layer of peptidoglycan which contains teichoic acids
Inner Membrane
Periplasm Lipoproteins
Phospholipids Protein Cytoplasm
Peptidoglycan MDO
LPS
Lipid A Porin
O-antigen repeat
Outer Core
Inner Core
Outer Membrane
Protein Cytoplasm
Peptidoglycan
LTA
Trang 33LPS, also known as endotoxin, is an important cause of disease. Bacteria can release toxins into host organisms. Different form “exotoxins” which are excreted by microorganisms, endotoxins are toxins from structural components of the bacteria which are released when the bacteria are lysed. LPS is composed of three parts, namely lipid A, non‐repeating “core” oligosaccharide, and distal polysaccharides (or O‐antigen) (Raetz et al. 2002) (Fig 1.1).
Fig 1.3 Structure of lipid A
Many of the immune activating abilities of LPS are attributed to the conserved lipid
A unit. The hydrophobic lipid A anchors LPS to form the outer leaflet of the outer membrane for Gram‐negative bacteria. The glycan structure of Lipid A consists of two β1–6 linked glucosamine residues with attached acyl chains (10 – 16 carbons in length), and usually contains one phosphate group on each carbohydrate. Lipid A with 6 acyl chains is considered to be the optimal immune activating structure. In E. coli lipid A
Trang 34(shown in Fig 1.3), two units of β‐hydroxymyristic acid bind directly to the glucosamine sugars on each glucosamine residues, one in ester linkage at C‐3 and one in amide linkage at C‐2. One additional lauroyl group and one myristoyl group are attached to the hydroxymyristic acid on the β‐hydroxy group.
All lipid A molecules contain 1 – 4 unusual sugar units (such as 3‐deoxy‐D‐manno‐oct‐2‐ulosonic acid, heptoses, hexoses, and hexosamines) and phosphate groups forming the core region (Fig 1.3) (Erridge et al. 2002). In E. coli lipid A, the Kdo (3‐deoxy‐D‐manno‐oct‐2‐ulosonic acid) domain, together with the phosphate group on glycan in lipid A, can bind to divalent cations and stabilize the outer membrane (Nikaido et al. 1985; Varki et al. 2002; Zasloff 2002). Lipid A and Kdo (or Kdo like sugar) are minimum requirements for forming an LPS molecule (Raetz 1990; Schnaitman et al. 1993; Brabetz
et al. 1997).
The outermost portion of LPS consists of the polysaccharide side chain called O‐antigen. The length and the sugar composition vary between different Gram‐negative bacterial strains. Generally, it contains up to 50 subunits which are composed of 1 – 8 sugar residues, with an additional cap containing 0 – 50 residues (Erridge et al. 2002; Varki et al. 2002). The sugar presented includes free and amidated uronic acids, amino sugars, methylated, deoxygenated and acetylated sugars, and others covalently bound
to amino acids and phosphate (Varki et al. 2002). The O‐antigen provides a hydrophilic barrier that protects bacteria against hydrophobic antibiotics, bile acids, and other materials. Antibodies of the host recognize pathogens depending on the O‐antigens. However, Gram‐negative bacteria can easily modify the sugar chain to avoid detection. When released into the animal blood circulation, LPS induces a strong immune response in the hosts. By binding to the CD14/TLR4/MD2 receptor complex (Triantafilou
Trang 35et al. 2005) on monocytes and macrophages, it triggers the secretion of cytokines which are regulators of host responses to infection, inflammation, and trauma. Some cytokines serve to reduce inflammation and promote healing (anti‐inflammatory). However there are also pro‐inflammatory cytokines, for example Interleukin (IL)‐1 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) (Dinarello 2000). Both of them cause dire physiological reactions, such as fever, inflammation, tissue destruction, and, in some cases, shock and even death. AMPs are an effective way to kill bacteria. LPS serves as the first target for AMPs to kill Gram‐negative bacteria. Researchers showed that AMPs interact with LPS on the outer membrane of Gram‐negative bacteria, and are subsequently taken up by a “self promoted uptake pathway” (Piers et al. 1994; Falla et al. 1996; Hancock 1997). Cationic AMPs show higher affinity (at least 3 orders of magnitude) to LPS compared to native divalent cations such as Ca2+ or Mg2+. Thus by adding AMP to the Gram‐negative bacteria, the peptide will competitively displace the cations. The bulky peptides destabilize the outer membrane and facilitate entry of additional molecules from the exterior. Thus more peptide molecules gain access to the periplasmic space to integrate into the inner membrane.
The inner membranes have a major role in maintaining cytoplasmic integrity, transporting substances into and out of the cytoplasm, excluding harmful substances, generating cellular energy and maintaining the transmembrane pH gradient. Hence, formation of channels on the inner membranes kills the bacteria (Hancock 1997). Typically the positively charged residues of the peptides will first interact with the negatively charged lipid headgroup. After the peptides fold into a certain structure, they aggregate into clusters with their hydrophobic faces interacting with the membrane hydrophobic fatty acid tail and their hydrophilic faces pointing inwards to form a channel.
Trang 36Details on different pore‐forming mechanisms are described in the next part. The channels destroy membrane integrity, and the bacterial cell dies. Usually bacteria show large transmembrane potentials, high content of negatively charged lipids, and lack of cationic lipids and cholesterol, which facilitates the channel formation. On the other hand, eukaryotic cells have low membrane potentials, high levels of cholesterol, and modest anionic lipid contents, hence are less likely to be disrupted by the AMPs. Membrane curvature induced by the relative size of head groups and alkyl chains of lipid molecules will also affects the peptide‐lipid interaction (Epand 1998; Matsuzaki et al. 1998; Huttner et al. 2002). The fluidity of the membrane (Matsuzaki et al. 1991) is another parameter regulating the peptide‐lipid interaction. Lipids with lower gel to liquid‐crystalline transition temperatures show higher fluidity. In the liquid‐crystalline phase, hydrocarbon chains of the lipid molecules are fluid and randomly oriented thus facilitating peptide‐lipid interaction. However, in gel phase the rigid hydrocarbon chains
of lipid molecules are fully extended and closely packed hence hindering the peptide‐lipid interaction.
Apart from the lysis activity of AMPs, LPS‐neutralizing peptides are also found to inhibit LPS‐mediated cytokine release (Tan et al. 2000; Tan et al. 2000; Rosenfeld et al. 2006). A strong binding of a peptide to LPS aggregates competes with the binding of LPS
to lipopolysaccharide‐binding protein, or to its receptor, and hence inhibits cytokine secretion resulting in a weaker pro‐inflammation effect.
1.1.3.2 Model membranes
Although actual biological membranes are ideal objects to study peptide‐lipid interactions, accurate investigation of biological membranes is difficult to achieve.
Trang 37Biological membranes are very complex and are composed of a large variety of lipid and protein molecules. Thus the interaction of peptide molecules with their actual target lipid molecules will be strongly influenced by other molecules. Hence model membranes are introduced to simplify the task. Common model membranes include monolayers, liposomes and supported lipid bilayers (Fig 1.4). Lipid monolayers can be easily formed
at the air/water interface. Since the introduction of experimental and theoretical modern concepts by I. Langmuir, a large number of studies have been done to study AMPs on monolayers (Maget‐Dana 1999; Lourenzoni et al. 2007).
Liposome is another commonly used model. Liposomes, or vesicles, are spherical enclosed lipid bilayers composed of similar materials as cell membrane. Liposomes are usually made of phospholipids. They can be made in different size: small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs), large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) and giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs). SUVs are usually smaller than 50 nm. They are often used to study binding activity of peptides to lipids. SUVs are also used in some spectral measurements, like fluorescence spectroscopy and circular dichroism spectroscopy (Matsuzaki et al. 1999), because the SUV solution is transparent. LUVs range from 50 nm to 200 nm. LUVs are used for studying peptide‐induced leakage or disruption (Matsuzaki et al. 1999; Yu et al. 2005). GUVs can have a diameter up to 50 μm or more and thus can be imaged using light microscopy. GUVs can provide a direct visualization on how peptides affect lipid membrane (Ambroggio et al. 2005; Tamba et al. 2005). Supported lipid bilayers are another commonly used model membrane in atomic force microscopy (AFM) (Mecke et
al. 2005; Shaw et al. 2006), surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy (SPR) (Mozsolits et
al. 2001; Mozsolits et al. 2002), impedance spectroscopy (Chang et al. 2008; McGillivray
et al. 2009) and fluorescence microscopy (Bocchinfuso et al. 2009; Fox et al. 2009).
Trang 38Fig 1.4 Schematic drawing of different model membranes, namely (A) monolayer, (B) bilayer and (C) lipsome
1.1.3.3 Mechanisms of antimicrobial peptides
Transmembrane pore‐forming mechanisms
AMPs must be attached to the bacterial surface before they can kill the bacteria. This process is driven by the electrostatic interaction between AMPs and the acidic (negatively charged) lipids in membranes (Matsuzaki et al. 1997; Brogden 2005). However in actual bacteria, the situation is complicated by the presence of other molecules like sugars and proteins. For cationic peptides, they are first targeted to the lipopolysacchride (LPS) on the outer membrane of Gram‐negative bacteria and teichoic acids on the surface of Gram‐positive bacteria (Scott et al. 1999; Li et al. 2006). Once attached onto the bacterial cell wall, AMPs must traverse the polysaccharide outer layer
to interact with the inner membrane. This process is crucial, but is rarely addressed in mechanistic studies. In this section, different models explaining how AMPs lyse the inner membrane are reviewed.
At a low peptide/lipid ratio, peptides are only bound superficially to the lipid bilayer. As the peptide/lipid ratio increases, peptides will reorient themselves to insert into the lipid bilayer. Transmembrane pores formed by peptides permeabilize the lipid membrane. Currently, there are mainly three proposed mechanisms on how AMPs
A
B
C
Substrate Substrate
Trang 39Barrel‐stave model
The barrel‐stave model was first proposed to explain the single‐channel conductance induced by alamethicin on lipid membranes (Baumann et al. 1974). In short, peptide molecules associate with each other and form a bundle with a central lumen. The hydrophobic parts of the peptides align with the hydrophobic lipid core region and the hydrophilic part forms the interior region of the pore. The pore is just like
a barrel made of helical peptides as staves.
Fig 1.5 The barrel-stave model of antimicrobial-peptide-induced killing, with reference from the review by Brogden (Brogden 2005)
Carpet model
In the carpet model, peptides are electrostatically attracted to the anionic phospholipid headgroups and lie parallel to the surface of the membrane (Pouny et al. 1992). Peptides accumulated on the membrane surface interact with each other in a
“carpet” like manner. When peptide concentrations reach a critical threshold, peptides are thought to disrupt the bilayer in a detergent‐like manner, eventually leading to the formation of micelles (Shai 1999; Ladokhin et al. 2001).
Trang 40Fig 1.6 The carpet model of antimicrobial-induced killing, with reference from the review
is consistent with the barrel‐stave model among several naturally produced amphiphilic peptides, including melittin and protegrins (Yang et al. 2001).
Intracellular killing mechanism
Apart from the transmembrane pore‐forming mechanisms described above, other modes of intracellular killing have also been proposed. For example, some anionic AMPs cause flocculation of intracellular contents (Brogden et al. 1996). PR‐39, PR‐26,