21st Century Manufacturing Episode 1 pdf

82 3.3 The Artistic, Creative, or Conceptual Phase of Design 823.4 The High-Level Engineering Phase of Design 83 3.5 The Analytical Phase of Design 86 3.6 The Detailed Phase of Design 90

The books in this series should be most suitable to junior and seniorundergraduate students and first year graduate students, and to those in industrywho need to solve problems on the design, operation and management ofindustrial systems.

Department ofIndustrial Engineering, Tslnghua University

School ofIndustrial Engineering, Purdue University

April, 2002

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1.1 Introduction: What Is "Manufacturing"? I

1.2 The Art of Manufacturing (from 20,000n.c.to 1770 A.D.) 2

13 The Technologyof Manufacturing: From the 1770s to the 1970s 51.4 A Science of Manufacturing: The 1980s to the Present 8

1.5 The Business of Manufacturing 13

2.2 Question 1: Who Is the Customer? 22

2.3 Question 2: How Much Will the Product Cost to Manufacture (C)? 262.4 Question 3: How MuchQuality (Q)? 44

2.5 Question 4: How Fast Can the Product Be Delivered (D)? 572.6 Question 5: How Much flexibility (F)? 62

2.11 InteractiveFurther Work 79

2.12 Review Material 80

3 PRODUCT" 6N,. COMI'fITRIAI"'" DamN (CADI

3.1 Introduction 81

3.2 Is There a Definitionof Design? 82

3.3 The Artistic, Creative, or Conceptual Phase of Design 823.4 The High-Level Engineering Phase of Design 83

3.5 The Analytical Phase of Design 86

3.6 The Detailed Phase of Design 90

3.7 Three Tutorials: An Overview 90

3.8 First Tutorial: Wire-Frame Construction 91

3.9 Solid Modeling Overview 98

3.10 Second Tutorial: Solid Modeling Using Constructive Solid Geometry(CSG) 104

3.11 Third Tutorial: Solid ModelingUsing Destructive Solid Geometry(DSG) 109

3.18 Question for Review 128

4.1 Solid Freeform Fabrication(SFF) Methods 130

4.2 Stereolithography: A General Overview 133

4.3 Comparisons Between Prototyping Processes 149

4.4 Casting Methods for Rapid Prototyping 154

4.5 Machining Methods for Rapid Prototyping 158

5.3 Market Adoption 172

5.4 The Microelectronics Revolution 174

5.5 Transistors 176

5.7 Semiconductor Manufacturing I: Summary 184

5.8 Semiconductor Manufacturing II: NMOS 185

5.10 More Details on Front-End Processing 192

5.11 Back-EndProcessing Methods 205

5.12 Cost of Chip Making 208

6.2 Printed Circuit Board Manufacturing 235

6.3 Printed Circuit Board Assembly 239

6.4 Hard Drive Manufacturing 248

7.2 Basic Machining Operations 280

7.3 Controlling the Machining Process 289

7.4 The Economics of Machining 302

7.5 Sheet Metal Forming 306

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8.5 Processing of Plastics III: Blow Molding 346

8.6 Processing of Plastics IV; Thermoforming of Thin Sheets 3468.7 The Computer as a Commodity: Design for Assembly andManufacturing 348

8.13 Case Study on Assembly 362

8.14 Interactive Furtherwork 364

9.7 Genetic EngineeringI: Overview 384

9.8 Genetic Engineering Il: Case Study on Gene Cloning of Hemoglobin 3909.9 BloprocessEngineering 395

10.3 From the Past to the Present 408

10.4 From the Present to the Future 409

10.5 Principles of Organizational "Layering" 410

10.6 Layer I: The Learning Organization 411

10.7 Layer II: CompressingTime-to-Market 413

10.8 Layer III: Aesthetics in Design 414

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10.10 Conclusions to the Layering Principle 420

10.11 References 420

10.12 Bibliography 421

A.I Who Want" to Be an Entrepreneur? 423

A2 Projects on Prototyping and Business 424

A3 Project Steps and Making Progress 425

A.4 Outline of a Short Business Plan 427

AS Project Selection 428

A6 Project 1: EnhancedMouse-Input Devices 429A.7 Project 2: Blimp-Cams, Cart-Cams, and TelepresenceDevices 430

A8 Project 3: MiniatureRadios for Consumer Electronics 431A.9 Project 4: GPS-Based Consumer Products 434AID Consulting Projects 437

A.ll Overview of Possible Factory Tours 439

A.13 Factory-Tour Case Study Write-Up 440

A.14 Suggested Format and Content for the Factory- Tour CaseStudies 441

A.I5 References 443

A.16 Bibliography 444

A.17 URLs of Interest 444

A.18 Case Study- The "Palm Pilot" 444

MANUFACTURING: ART, TECHNOLOGY, SCIENCE,

AND BusINESS

1.1 INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS "MANUFACTURING"?

The word has Latin roots:manu, meaning by hand, joined tofacere, meaning to make

The dictionary definition is "Making of articles by physical/abor or machinery, cially on a large scale." Even this simple definition shows a significant historical trend.

espe-with hand tools used craft skills to make objects Since the industrial revolution

200 years ago, machinery has played an increasing role, as summarized in the secondbetter understood And in more recent decades, computer aided design and manu-facturing (CAD/CAM) and new concepts in quality assurance (OA) have been intro-duced to improve efficiency in production It is expected that the 21st century willbring even better process models, more exacting control, and increased integration

During the early part of the 20th century, the words largescale-used above in

the dictionary definition-were synonymous with the mass production of HenryFord Most people would agree that the present trends created by the Internet havenow set the stage for an even larger scale or global approach to manufacturing Wecan expect to see global networks of information and distributed manufacturingenterprises The 20th century concept of a monolithic organization clinging to onecentralized corporate ethos may fade The new culture may well be smaller, moreagile corporations that can spring up for specific purposes, exist while the market sus-tains the new product, and then gracefully disband as the market changes TheInternet is certainly providing the infrastructure for these more flexible and informalways of creating new enterprises that respond to people with a naturally entrepre-neurial spirit In Chapter 1, the goals are to set the stage for these broad views of

Early 18th Century 20th Century 21st Century

Manufacturing: Past,Present,and Future 19th Century

Systemwide networks and information Robust processes and intelligent control Global enrerprtses and virtual manufacturing corporations Figufe Ll Four centuries of manufacturing leading to 21st century manufacturing.

1.2 THE ART OF MANUFACTURING (FROM 20,000 B.C

TO 1770 A.D.I

In the most general sense, manufacturing is central to existence and survival

Histo-ago, to a period in which "technology took an extTa spurt" (Pfeiffer, 1986)

Cro-Magnons retreated southward from the glacial ice that, more or less,reached what aretools for hunting, and crude implements for cooking This general period of prehistoryaround 20,000B.G to 10,000B.C.is referred to as the Stone Age The availability of

simple manufacturing tools and methods around the period of 10,000B.G also createdthe environment for community living, rather than an opportunistic, nomadic-tribementality Such communities set the stage, at that time, for theagrarian revolution.

Manufacturing must have then evolved from these arts and crafts roots withoccasional similar spurts prompted by climate, famine, or war For example, the acci-dental discovery that natural copper ore, mixed with natural tin are, would produceAge Archaeologists believe that bronze weapons, drinking vessels, and other oma-ments were made in Thailand, Korea, and other Eastern civilizations as early as 5000mined in the Cornwall area of England The two contemporaneous societies of Egyptand Mesopotamia appeared on the historical scene around 3000 B.C.While the his-torical roots of these cultures appear hazy, they were blessed wilh sophisticated arti-sans (Thomsen and Thomsen, 1974) Their early arts and crafts skills were thenpassed on to the Greeks and Romans, thereby setting the stage for European man-industrial revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries

One example of these early arts and crafts skills was the lost-wax castingprocess It was discovered by both the Egyptians and the Koreans around the period

of a small statue Sand or clay is then packed around this wax model Next, the waxmodel is melted out through a small hole in the bottom to leave a hollow core Thesmall hole is plugged, and then liquid metal is poured into a wider hole at the top ofthe hollow cavity After the metal freezes and sets, the casting is broken out of theLater chapters in the book will describe modern rapid-prototyping shops, connected

to the Internet, producing small batches of trial-run computer casings for AT&T, icon Graphics, and IBM These are high-tech operations by anyone's standards Iron-used in prototyping

Sil-If the roots of forging and casting are with the Egyptian and Korean artisans,what about slightly more complex processes such as turning and milling? Bronzedrinking vessels extracted by archaeologists from the tombs in Thebes, Egypt, showdescribed later, a lathe is a turning machine tool, predominantly used today tochange the diameter of a bar of stee1.) The manufacturing date is estimated to bebefore 26 B.C.,because Thebes was sacked in that year (Armarego and Brown, 1969)

In the British Museum and the Natural History Museum in New York, many artobjects show these characteristic turned circles from early machining operations.Even the wordlathehas romantic roots It derives from the wordlath,related

to the description for a flexible stick or slender tree branch used to spin the bar asdescribed below Early lathes were operated by two people: one holding the tool, theably one of the exhausted turning guys) that one could rig up a crude system some-thing like an old-fashioned sewing machine treadle A rope was wrapped and loopedaround the free end of the bar being machined One end was.tied to the turner's foot,rather like a stirrup; the other end was tied to the end of a springy stick or tree branch(the lath) that was nailed up into the roof rafters As the turner raised his foot up anddown, the motion rotated the bar back and forth, and the lath functioned as a returnspring for the rope Obviously this was a relatively crude process from a modern dayview of achievable precision! But from the wordlathcomes today's wordlathe.And

in Britain, the word "turner" is frequently used instead of the American word

"machinist" for the lathe operator

This introduction to manufacturing from an artistic point of view brings up thefirst thoughts on design for manufacturability (DFM) (see Bralla, 1998) It must bethere is always a trade-off between the complexity of the original design and howeasily it is made It was certainly clear to the original artisans In any natural historymuseum showing European art, one can see many functional items such as cookingpots, ordinary tools, eating implements that are rather dull looking: no fancy f1eurs-de-lis

or insets, no beautifully rounded corners By contrast, exotic jewelry and necklaces docontain these fanciful additions The most decorative items are the handles andaverage soldier's heart, and they were willing to pay relatively large sums of money

with beauty Nevertheless, the very best materials and refined structures wereemployed.

An economic analysis of design for manufacturability should always keep in mindthe ultimate customer.An overly fanciful,nearly impossible to fabricate sword scabbard

to pay for But not all customers Walmart, Kmart, and McDonald's show that thequality materials are compromised in favor of low cost Any new enterprise embarking

on the design, planning, and fabrication of a new product should therefore begin withthe market analysis How much time and money go into each step of design, planning,marketplace-to analyze which group of consumers is being targeted, how many itemswill be sold, and at what margin-no amount of fabulous technology will win.The brief case study at the end of this chapter expresses the same opinion The

article refers to "the next bench syndrome" coined at Hewlett-Packard The idea is

that, in the past, engineering designers would create devices to impress their neering colleague seated at the next bench, rather than the ultimate consumer.Today, the evidence is that HP products have improved, now that its designers haveredirected their efforts to become more customer oriented The article also mentionsthe early (1993-1994 era) prototypes of pen-input computers Some readers mayrecall how bulky and slow these were But today, designers and manufacturersunderstand what consumers genuinely want from mobile, palm-size, pen-inputdevices: for example, the Palm Pilot and similar products have now become wellestablished, useful consumer products

engi-This section is entitled "The Art of Manufacturing," and it introduces theimportant link between design and manufacturing (DFM).The relationship betweenart, design, and manufacturing is complex The wordartis derived from the Latinars,

meaning skill Thus, especially before the industrial revolution (1770-1820), newskills were predominant By contrast, in the modem era, new products are mostlikely to be designed and manufactured by mathematically trained engineers Today,some degree of intuition, and trial and error, is still needed on the factory floor to21st century, the role of the craftsperson or artisan will fade away

Does this mean that art will no longer playa role in design and manufacturing?The answer is "probably not," because art involves more than just a hand skill itself.Most scholars of art describe the concept ofaesthetic experience that elevates a basicskill into the artistic reahn It is observed that the most successful artists-in any fieldsuch as music, dance, literature, painting,architecture, orsculpture-e-cornmunicate

an aesthetic experience to their audience Communication of this aesthetic ence to the consumer will always be key for the "design artist" or "manufacturingartist" no matter how mathematically sophisticated and high-tech these fields even-tually become As this book moves on to the technology and business of manufac-turing, it is suggested that new students in the field keep this concept of aesthetic

experi-1.3 THE TECHNOLOGY OF MANUFACTURING:

FROM THE 1770s TO THE 1970s

The first watershed that changed manufacturing from a purely artistic or at least artisantype endeavor must surely have been the industrial revolution in England, which tookwith no single reason for this revolution (Plumb, 1965;Wood, 1963) It was a combina-tion of technological, economic, and political factors, as follows:

L A rapid increase in the day-to-day health and living conditions of people, henceincreased population for marketing purposes and the supply of a labor forcefor the expanding factories

2 Access to large markets, not only in England and the rest of Europe but also

in Asia and Africa, as explorers opened up new colonies and global markets.Also, historians point out that even though England had lost the AmericanWar of Independence, there nevertheless remained a huge market for goods

in the rapidly expanding United States

3 A long period of social and political stability in Britain This provided the stagefor a more entrepreneurial mood in business and commerce

4 New techniques in banking and the handling of credit Added to this werefaster communications and reliable methods for handling mail and businessdocuments

5 Many successive years of successful commerce, which caused capital to mulate and interest rates to fall Available and cheap capital favored business.Both large-scale operations and smaller middle-class businesses were formed,which then added to a general "gold rush" type fervor around London and theindustrial cities north of England

accu-6 For sure, the industrial revolution could not have taken off without the steamengine (In exactly the same way, the current information age could not havelater.) Thomas Newcomen built one of the first steam engines in 1712, but itindustry: in particular, his patent for a separate condenser was granted in 1769.This steam-powered machinery that was thus set in motion during the indus-trial revolution paved the way for massive increases in productivity in alliron, in textiles, and in machinery manufacturing For example, a rapid serieswright's water frame (1769), Hargreaves's multiplied spinning wheel (ur jenny)(1770), and Crompton's mule (1779) enormously increased the amount ofthread one person could spin And it took little time to apply the steam engine

to these industries such as cotton spinning The first steam-powered machineswere developed in 1785, and in the space of 15 years or so, the transition fromcottage industry to factory life was complete This naturally increased the

by Eli Whitney Records show that in April 1793, he built the first cotton gin,which revolutionized and rapidly accelerated the output of cotton in Georgiaand the southern states.

Historians and economists emphasize strongly, however, that the new nology alone was not enough to account for the dramatic expansion in productivityand commerce In fact, the historians point out that even steam technology was notpowered toys and that the ancient Egyptians used steam-powered temple doors.Also, in the 15th century, the evidence indicates that China had already developed arather sophisticated set of technological ideas that included steelmaking, gun-powder, and the ability to drill for natural gas None of these previous cultures capi-talized on such technologies to launch an industrial revolution All six factors above,the list in the context of manufacturing growth in the 21st century In many respects,while today's technology is more related to electronics and telecommunications, tomaintain growth, the social and economic drivers must remain much the same.Once the Industrial Revolution was well under way,beyond 1820, it gave way to

tech-a more susttech-ained period of consolidtech-ation in both Europe tech-and the United Sttech-ates Thethe period from 1840 to 1910 Increased standardization, improved precision, andtries These secondary industries could expand only because of the availability of reli-able machine tools.Indeed even today, the machine tool industry is a key building block for industrial society, since it provides the base upon which other industries perform their production. Rosenberg (1976) has written a comprehensive and engaging review

of the origins of the machine tool industry and its crucial supporting role for ondary industries such as the gun making industry Here are some typical extracts:Throughout the whole of the first half of the nineteenth century and culminatingperhaps with the completion of Samuel Colt's armory in Hartford in 1855,themaking of firearms occupied a position of decisive importance in the develop-SimeonNorth employed crude millingmachinesin their musketproducingenter-prises in the second decade of the nineteenth century as did John D.Hall in the

sec-in the18508and rapidly assumed a prominent place in all the metal trades,This interaction between gun making and machinery invention created theimportant manufacturing idea ofinterchangeable parts. Prior to this concept, eachgun was handcrafted and fitted together as a unique item This was because theetry.Bycontrast, using the interchangeable parts concept, the individual subcompo-nents were produced with strict uniformity In this case, any combination of themunskilled labor Eli Whitney is often credited with the "invention" of the inter-

many years by the craftspeople in several New England armories, all of whom were:struggling with the same problems of quality control and delivery time (see Rosen-berg, 1976) At the same time, in France, LeBlanc developed similar methods forinterchangeable parts.

How did these new methods affect customer satisfaction? Some historicalaccounts point out an initial anxiety from the customers, who were government agen-earliest contracts to make muskets) This was because the interchangeable parts conceptrequired careful machinery setup and exacting quality controL It meant that the initialtrast, the accounts then indicate that the customers were subsequently astonished byhow quickly Whitney and other armories could mass-produce large batches These cus-tomers were doubly happy in the event that they needed a spare part Previously, such

a repair might require the hand polishing Andadjustments skills of a "fitter and turner."However, with interchangeable parts, it was just a question of buying a replacement andbeing fairly confident it would be the same size as the original subcomponent

F.W Taylor wrote Principles of Scientific Management in 1911, much of which

was based on his factory experiences in the period 1895-1911, first at the MidvaleSteel Company and then at the Bethlehem Steel Corporation Taylor was an extraor-dinarily successful man in many areas First, he co-invented, with Maunsel White,high-speed steel cutting tools that allowed a four times increase in cutting speed inthe basic production processes of turning, drilling, and milling Second, Taylor care-

to bring them under closer control The Taylor equation that relates cutting speed totool life is still used today This work sprang naturally from the interchangeable partswhen he turned his attention to factory organization, he created order out of chaos

He quantified manual labor tasks by breaking them down into substeps These

subtask and get the overall task done more quickly Such time-and-motion studies

were so effective for industrial organization at that time that they were soon to beused by all the larger, emerging industrial corporations

Consequently, mass production-usually attributed to Henry Ford-was thenatural culmination of the interchangeable parts idea and Taylor's careful methodsfor dissecting and optimizing industrial tasks By 1912, the first automobiles wereand Second World Wars further increased the need for speed and efficiency.cess of the Allied forces in Europe

The knowledge gained from these efficient production methods meant thatafter the end of the Second World War in 1945-1946, the United States had a worldmonopoly, especially in comparison with the rest of the world, which was devastatedfrom the war and would need many years to rebuild Notonlydid the United Stateshave detailed knowledge of basic manufacturing processes, but it was also veryskilled in operations research (OR)-meaning the logistics of how to organize large

electronics industry The first numerically controlled (NC) machine tools were beginnings of computer aided manufacturing (CAM).

In summary, from the end of the Second World War, throughout the 1960s,andinto the early 1970s, the United States enjoyed more than 25 years of unparalleledwealth Excellence in manufacturing was one of the key components to this wealth

Consumer items such as VCRs, microwave ovens, televisions, and cameras werethe first to be taken over by Japanese manufacturers (such as Matsushita and Sony)and, subsequently, by other Pacific Rim countries, Furthermore, given the reluctance

of the "Big Three" U.S automobile manufacturers to change their designs to reflectincreased gas prices in the 1970s, and a general demand from consumers for moreaway a worrisome chunk of the U.S car markets

Beginning around 1980, how did the United States respond to these lenges? At first, the responses were emotional and a little derogatory Magazine arti-Japan were at worst "dumping" steel, autos, and memory chips at below real marketcosts, merely to penetrate theu.s.market Or perhaps, more mildly, these new com-petitors were successful only because of cheaper labor costs Not surprisingly then,

chal-the first rational U.S response was to heavily invest in robotics and unattended ible manufacturing systems (FMS) in order to reduce factory floor labor costs Taken

flex-together, robotics and unattended flexible manufacturing systems can be defined as

computer integrated manufacturing (Cllvl).

By the mid-1980s, this investment in CIM did begin to show considerablepromise Nevertheless, as emphasized in the preface, to compete in manufacturing,

no amount of fabulous technology alone can win the day.To make a true turnaround

in manufacturing excellence, these investments in robotics and FMS needed to be

executed in the context of total quality management (TQM).

The next two subsections review more details of these issues under two headings:

• Engineering Science, defined for this book as the hardware and software of CIM

• Organizational Science, defined for this book as the management and TQM