Structure and Function in Agroecosystem Design and Management - Chapter 1 ppsx

peo-In this book, biological interactions, matter circulation, and disturbancesoperating within the agroecosystems in question will be discussed by 31 sci-entists working in the fields o

Structure and Function

in Agroecosystem Design and Management

Advances in Agroecology

Series Editor: Clive A Edwards

Soil Ecology in Sustainable Agricultural Systems,

Lijbert Brussaard and Ronald Ferrera-Cerrato

Biodiversity in Agroecosystems,

Wanda Williams Collins and Calvin O Qualset

Agroforestry in Sustainable Agricultural Systems,

Louise E Buck, James P Lassoie, and Erick C.M Fernandes

Agroecosystem Sustainability: Developing Practical Strategies,

Ibaraki University, Mito, Japan

Sir Colin R.W Spedding

Berkshire, England

Moham K Wali

The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH

Structure and Function

in Agroecosystem

Design and Management

Edited by

Masae Shiyomi Hiroshi Koizumi

Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

CRC Press

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Structure and function in agroecosystem design and management / edited by Masae Shiyomi and Hiroshi Koizumi

p cm (Advances in agroecology) Includes bibliographical references (p ).

ISBN 0-8493-0904-2 (alk paper)

1 Agricultural ecology 2 Agriculture Environmental aspects I Shiyomi, Masae.

II Koizumi, Hiroshi, Ph.D.III Series.

S589.7 S767 2000 338.1 ′62 dc21 00-049827

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material

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Printed on acid-free paper

Today, the world faces many problems The most important problem is thepopulation explosion The population of 2.8 billion around 1945 doubledduring the following 50 years, and it will approximately double again, reach-ing 10 billion during the next 50 years This population increase will produceserious effects on worldwide food consumption and distribution; however, asharp production increase in agricultural products cannot be expected.During the next 50 years, all presently known deposits of natural gas andpetroleum and those to be mined in the future will have been exhausted Thisshortage of fossil fuel will seriously affect agricultural activities

Present agricultural practices cause environmental problems Most ple believe that agriculture is gentle to nature and the earth, as the green ofagricultural fields comforts the human mind However, the same greenharms the earth For example, CO2from agroecosystems is a greenhouse-effect gas and nitrogen fertilizer in runoff water from fields may causeeutrophication of lakes and rivers These problems are discussed in the chap-ters that follow

peo-In this book, biological interactions, matter circulation, and disturbancesoperating within the agroecosystems in question will be discussed by 31 sci-entists working in the fields of agricultural science and applied ecology Amajor purpose of this book is to clarify the structure and function of individ-ual agroecosystems Although this book does not attempt to give the entirepicture of these agroecosystems, the authors stress the importance of studies

to elucidate agroecosystems structure and function These studies will make

it possible to develop alternative types of agriculture in the twenty-first tury

cen-The authors live in different parts of the world: China, the CzechRepublic, Finland, Greece, India, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, the U.K., and theU.S We hope that such a wide range of experiences contribute to a world-wide ecdysis of present agriculture and to improvements of other types ofagriculture If this book can stimulate researchers and students in the fields

of agroecology and agronomy in the world, our major objective will havebeen fulfilled

We express sincere gratitude to the contributors of the 19 chapters and toProfessor Clive A Edwards, The Ohio State University, for giving us anopportunity to write and edit this important book

Masae Shiyomi Hiroshi Koizumi

Masae Shiyomiis a professor of the Faculty of Science at Ibaraki University,Mito, Japan He is president of the Japanese Society of Grassland Science andthe Japanese Agricultural Systems Society until 2001 He is a leader in grass-land science He and his students are studying energy and matter flow and themodeling of grassland ecosystems He is also an applied statistician, and hisecological work has been deeply enhanced due to his expertise in statistics Professor Shiyomi was born in 1938 in Kyoto Prefecture He graduatedfrom the University of Tokyo, Faculty of Agriculture in 1961 and received thedegree of Doctor of Agriculture from the University of Tokyo in 1980 with thethesis: “Mathematical ecology of spatial patterns of biological populations”;

he also received the degree of Doctor of Science from Ibaraki University in

2000, based on his study titled “Spatial pattern of grassland vegetation—models and methods.” From 1961 to 1978, he worked at the StatisticalDivision, the former National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, and theMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in Japan In 1978 he moved tothe Ecology Department of the National Grassland Research Institute andPlant Ecology Division of the National Institute of Agro-EnvironmentalScience in the same ministry and continued working there until 1994 In 1994,

he obtained his present position at Ibaraki University

Professor Shiyomi has obtained various prizes: the Prize of the JapaneseSociety of Grassland Science, the Prize of the Minister of Agriculture,Forestry and Fisheries, the Japan Prize of Agriculture, and the AgriculturePrize of the Yomiuri Newspaper Company for his studies of systems analy-sis and statistical ecology in agriculture He received the title of HonoraryProfessor at the Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China He haswritten many books and scientific papers His hobbies include writingJapanese-style poems and making Japanese-style flower arrangements

Hiroshi Koizumiis a professor of the Institute for Basin Ecosystem Studies

at Gifu University, Gifu, Japan He completed his undergraduate and ate education at the Department of Biology at Waseda University in Tokyo,receiving a M.S degree in 1972 and Doctor of Science degree in 1986 with the

gradu-thesis: “The life history of Pylora japonica populations and their light

condi-tions.” As a research assistant he worked for approximately 3 years at theInstitute of Biological Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Japan Thereafter hemoved to the Plant Ecology Laboratory at the National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries,Japan In 1992 and 1993 he worked at the Crop Science Section of theAgricultural Research Centre of Finland to conduct cooperative researchbetween Japan and Finland In 1998 he obtained his present position at GifuUniversity

Professor Koizumi’s research activities have focused on the ecologicalphysiology of forest floor plant species He has been particularly interested

in the light environment and carbon gain of understory herbs associated with

sunflecks in a forest He has also been interested in primary productivity andthe efficiency of solar energy utilization in several cropping systems Morerecently, he has extended his research interests to environmental problemsand sustainable land use He is now focusing on carbon dynamics, budgets,and sequestrations in agricultural and forest ecosystems.

Chinese Academy of Sciences

Beijing, People’s Republic of China

Chinese Academy of Sciences

Beijing, People’s Republic of China

University of London Wye, U.K

sas00ge@wye.ac.uk

Dimitrios G Georgakopoulos

Technological Education Institute

of CreteHeraklio, Greecedgeorga@nefeli.imbb.forth.gr

Han Yong Kim

Japan Science and Technology

Corporation and Tohoku

lief@tnaes.affrc.go.jp

Nikolaos E Malathrakis

Technological Education Institute

of CreteHeraklio, Greecenmal@lyttos.admin.teiher.gr

J.mitchley@ic.ac.uk

Academy of Sciences of the Czech

Republic and Faculty of

Biological Sciences

University of South Bohemia

Budˇejovice, Czech Republic

U.S.A

yzjoz@ttacs.ttu.edu

Chapter 1

Introduction

Masae Shiyomi and Hiroshi Koizumi 1

Part I Biological Interactions in Agroecosystems

Ecological Management of Crop-Weed Interactions 61

Chris Doyle, Neil McRoberts, Ralph Kirkwood, and George Marshall

Chapter 5

Utilization of Biological Interactions and Matter Cycling in Agriculture 95

Masae Shiyomi

Chapter 6

Biological Interaction in Tropical Grassland Ecosystems 113

Panjab Singh and S.D Upadhyaya

Chapter 7

Agroecology of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Activity 145

John C Zak and Bobbie McMichael

Plant Diseases and Plant Ecology 183

Nikolaos E Malathrakis and Dimitrios G Georgakopoulos

Part II Matter Cycling in Agroecosystems

Chapter 10

Carbon Cycling in Croplands 207

Hiroshi Koizumi

Chapter 11

Nitrogen Use Efficiency in Temperate Zone Arable Lands 227

Miloslay Sˇimek and James E Cooper

Chapter 12

Impact of Grazing on the Ecosystems 253

Daming Huang

Chapter 13

Environmental Fate of Pesticides 275

Masako Ueji and Yuso Kobara

Chapter 14

The Effect of Elevated Atmospheric CO2on Grazed Grasslands 297

Paul C.D Newton, Harry Clark, and Grant R Edwards

Part III Effects of Environmental Changes on the Structure of AgroecosystemsChapter 15

Impact of Grazing on Soil Properties in Steppe Ecosystems 315

Zuozhong Chen and Xiaoyong Cui

Growth and Yield of Paddy Rice Under Free-air CO2Enrichment 371

Kazuhiko Kobayashi, Mark Lieffering, and Han Yong Kim

Chapter 19

Effects of Climatic Change in Finland on Growth and Yield Formation of

Wheat and Meadow Fescue 397

Kaija Hakala

Index 419

CHAPTER 1 Introduction

Masae Shiyomi and Hiroshi Koizumi

CONTENTS

Structure and Function of Agroecosystems 1

Who Is This Book For? 6

How the Book Is Organized 7

References 8

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AGROECOSYSTEMS

The development of agriculture in advanced countries from the 1950s to the 1970s occurred largely because of enormous increases in the use of fossil fuel energy Specifically, it was supported by the increased use of fertilizers and agrochemicals, which are produced with fossil fuels, agromachinery that burns large amounts of fuel, and the breeding of new varieties of crops that are responsive to and compatible with such chemical inputs and cultural practices (Pimentel et al., 1973) Researchers, too, have promoted this agri-cultural system by focusing on research that improves crop yield by the direct utilization of these fertilizers and agrochemical inputs Indeed, this research program has been very efficient and has increased both crop and livestock production and increasingly accelerated the consumption of fertilizers and agrochemicals The use of intra- and interspecific interactions and interac-tions between organisms and the environment, such as climatic factors and soils, are given little consideration in the current agricultural system Modern agricultural practice has viewed these interactions as produc-tion constraints that must be overcome to make high producproduc-tion possible Because the direct effects of fossil fuel energy and its products on agricultural production have been so powerful, reliable, and dramatic, little attention has 0-8493-0904-2/01/$0.00+$.50 1

2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN AGROECOSYSTEMS DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT

been paid to the complex networks of biological interactions Figure 1.1 trates such complex interactions operating in agroecosystems.1They include,for example, competition between phytophagous insects, the effects of insectpathogens and other natural enemies on these phytophagous species, andantagonism between microorganisms The use of agrochemicals hasappeared to make it possible to control insect pests, plant pathogens, andweeds at sufficiently low levels without regard to the biological functionsand interactions in the agroecosystem By using fertilizers, it seemed thathigh crop yield could be guaranteed without the help of the subtle actions ofsoil-borne microorganisms The direct effects by agrochemicals and fertiliz-ers are easily understood by farmers, agricultural technicians, andresearchers, while the functions and mechanisms that govern the indirect,complex effects operating between organisms themselves or the organismsand the environment are difficult to understand and to utilize efficiently.The present system of agriculture, which depends on consumption oftremendous quantities of fossil fuel energy, is now being forced to change to

illus-a system where the interillus-actions between orgillus-anisms illus-and the environment illus-areproperly used There are two reasons for this transformation The first is thedepletion of readily obtainable fossil fuel resources The second is that con-sumption of fossil fuels has induced deterioration of the environment.Two negative aspects of the massive consumption of fossil fuel energy inmodern agriculture should be considered The rate of increase of crop andlivestock production with increasing inputs has decelerated, as shown inFigure 1.2 In addition to these reduced marginal rates of return from inputuse, it is unlikely that new strains or varieties will be developed that willrespond even more effectively to an increase in inputs Furthermore, thedirect and indirect effects of continuous inputs of fossil energy have reducedthe diversity of the flora and fauna, further constraining input-basedimprovements in production

Another problem is the broad spatial scale of the effects of modern culture The tremendous consumption of fossil energy in agriculture has led

agri-to unprecedented detrimental effects on the global environment and bioticdiversity The pollution of many ecosystems has been caused by use of agro-chemicals, especially organochloride pesticides This pollution expanded asthe pollutants circulated throughout these ecosystems and can now right-fully be called pollution of the entire earth

Nitrogen consumption in agriculture has also become an importantglobal issue For example, Japan presently imports massive quantities of food(60% of its food on a calorie basis) and feed (70% of feed) from foreign coun-tries, and, as a result, the total amount of nitrogen imported into Japan is

1

In this book, the word agroecosystems refers to grassland ecosystems, upland-field ecosystems,

paddy field ecosystems, or areas containing all of them, and an ecosystem contains all living things and the environment surrounding them, such as solar energy, water, soil, and humans.