Gastrointestinal Endoscopy - part 5 potx

Japanese studies show good results withPDT and Nd:YAG used for superficial carcinoma staged by endoscopic ultrasound in poor operative risk patients.. Endoscopic laser therapy for rectal

97 Lasers in Endoscopy

13

• Photodynamic therapy Largest clinical experience to date Best technique forcircumferential areas of Barrett’s esophagus ≥ 3 cm in length Small area ofBarrett’s, i.e., finger-like projections, < 3 cm circumferential involvement, can

be treated with Nd:YAG laser

• Risks Perforation, stricture (common), Barrett’s epithelium retained undernew squamous mucosa

• Bottom line Still experimental Patients with large areas of Barrett’s with vere dysplasia who are acceptable risks should undergo surgery

se-Early Gastric Carcinoma

Rare in the U.S Small lesions, ≤ 3 cm Japanese studies show good results withPDT and Nd:YAG used for superficial carcinoma (staged by endoscopic ultrasound)

in poor operative risk patients Raised lesions with discrete margins: Nd:YAG Flat,ulcerated lesions with indiscrete margins: PDT Complete remission at 2 years in80%

Advanced Gastric Carcinoma

YAG laser generally not very helpful Minimal PDT experience; stents best forextensive antral lesions that cause partial gastric outlet obstruction

Figure 13.3 Treatment of rectal adenoma, polypoid and sessile components (topleft) remove polypoid portion via standard snare technique, specimen to Pathol-ogy; (bottom left) begin endoscopic laser treatment of sessile area; (top right) makesure area is examined in retroflexion because tumor often is not seen in end-onview; and (bottom left) treat, if necessary, in retroflexion and torque scope to getbest angle; avoid scope shaft; may need to alter patient position

98 Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

13

Table 13.4 Endoscopic laser therapy for rectal and rectosigmoid villous

adenomas and its relationship to the circumference of the tumor base

Size of Tumor BaseLess than More thanOne-Third Two-ThirdsCircumference Circumference

Laser treatments per patient 3.2 13.5

Stenosis needing dilation (%) 0 15

Subsequent carcinoma detection (%) 3 24

Table 13.5 Indications for endoscopic laser therapy for benign rectal and

rectosigmoid adenomas in patients who are operative candidates and those who are not

Operative Candidate Nonoperative Candidate

• Avoid interference with sphincteric function • Control bleeding

• Recurrence following surgery • Control of diarrhea

• “Certainty” of endoscopic cure • Dehydration

• Relatively low cancer risk • Hypokalemia

(size, appearance, sampling) • Incontinence

• Patient refuses surgery

• Alleviation of obstruction

Table 13.3 Complications of endoscopic laser therapy for colorectal cancers

Pain requiring narcotic analgesia 3 0.6

Bleeding requiring transfusion 10 2.0

99 Lasers in Endoscopy

13

Duodenal Malignancies

Laser occasionally of value PDT better than Nd:YAG because of ease of ment application Palliation for bleeding and/or obstructive symptoms Stents may

treat-be treat-best for partially obstrcuting lesions Difficult to treat this region with any modality

Benign Duodenal Polyps

Isolated or with familial polyposis syndromes Side viewing scope best Lesions

in ampulla common and, unfortunately, most difficult to ablate Can invade ororiginate in distal CBD May need Whipple operation

Colorectal Cancer

• Background Primary treatment of colorectal cancer is surgical, based on ciples of relief and prevention of bleeding or obstruction and debulking pri-mary tumor mass However, approximately 10-15% of all patients with rectalcancer are better managed nonoperatively This includes certain elderly pa-tients, those with severe, associated medical conditions or with widespread

prin-Figure 13.4a,b Sessile rectal villous adenoma before treatment (top) and ately after treatment (bottom)

immedi-100 Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

13

metastases, and the occasional patient who refuses surgery Rectal cancer ismuch more frequently treated with endoscopic laser therapy than more proxi-mal colonic lesions because of: ease of access, need for more drastic surgery,less chance of severe complication (free perforation)

- Goal is usually palliative Results: bleeidng controlled in 90%; obstruction aged in 75%

man Treatment technique like that for esophageal cancer: IV sedation, coaxial CO2,Nd:YAG laser, 60-80 watts Treat proximal tumor margin first (that portionfurthest from anus) and work distally Treat q2-4 days until lumen patencyachieved or bleeding areas treated, usually accomplished in 2-3 sessions (Fig.13.2) Retreat approximately every 10 weeks Most difficult to treat are circum-ferential lesions that traverse the rectosigmoid angle (stent preferable); lesionsthat extend to the anus, especially if circumferential; anastomotic recurrencesince this is primarily extraluminal (stent preferable)

- The goal is cure in certain lesions, ie, ≤ 3 cm in length, ≤ one-thord ofcircumference, purely exophytic without ulceration Brunetaud treated 19 suchpatients, 18 of whom had no local recurrence of clinically evident metastases ataverage follow-up of 37 months However, since currently no fool-proof way tostage accurately to exclude nodal involvement (even with endoscopic ultrasoundand/or radiolabeling with antitumor antibodies), patients still need at a relativesurgicla contraindication to be considered for curative laser therapy forcolorectalcancer

- Complications (Table 13.3)

Figure 13.4c Sessile rectal villous adenoma Total ablation, after treatment

101 Lasers in Endoscopy

13

Benign Colorectal Neoplasms

• Technique goal Total ablation when possible, but ablation difficult with cumferential lesions and large circumferential lesions increase hiddencarcinoma potential (Table 13.4) Therefore an otherwise healthy patioentwith an extensive lesions should undergo surgery, even if it means AP resectionwith colostomy The less extensive the lesion and the higher the surgical risk,the more appealing is laser treatment

cir-• Technique (Fig 13.3) Snare polypoid segments by standard snare tomy technique Then treat remaining sessile tumor with laser Purely sessilelesions are laser-treated (Fig 13.4) In large lesions, obtain biopsy samplesfrequently to minimize the chance of missing carcinoma For summary ofindications for endoscopic laser therapy of benign rectosigmoid lesions seeTable 13.5 With sessile villous adenomas, rationale for laser therapy versussurgery is similar, but lesions ≥ 4 cm (≥ one-half circumference) favor surgery

polypec-• Alternative treatment “Strip biopsy” Injection of normal saline into cosa for “lif up” neoplasm, then polypectomy via standard snare technique.Good for smaller lesions Very difficult for circumferential lesions and/or le-sions near anal verge Can inject saline into submucosa prior to laser treat-ment as well, which may decrease perforation risk

submu-Laser lithotripsy Fragmentation of gallstones by laser Larger common bile duct

stones not amenable to removable via sphincterotomy or mechanical lithotripsy.Choledochoscope passed via biopsy channel of duodenoscope directly into com-mon bile duct Fiber placed in direct contact with stone Not first-line therapy forcholedocholithiasis

Vascular Malformations of GI Tract

• Goal Photocoagulation of mucosal vessels and, in some instances, cosal feeder vessels

submu-• Indications for treatment Severe iron deficiency anemia or acute bleeding 50%present with occult bleeding; 50% with acute, sometimes recurrent, bleeding

• Technique, Nd:YAG laser 50-60 watts, 0.5-1,0 sec pulse duration Aim toproduce blanching of the surface yet coagulate down to submucosa Themucosal lesion is often tip of the iceberg Lesions that bleed spontaneously orooze with initial treatment need the most aggressive therapy Treat for at least

4 wk with acid suppressant therapy for iatrogenic, post-treatment ulcerations

• Treatment pearls Examine patient euvolemic Hypovolemia cause blanching

of vessels, hard to see Water jet red spots, often AVMs, are mistaken for focalgastritis If oozes blood with water jet, need to treat Examine carefully onscope entry since scope trauma marks are easily confused with AVMs Useglucagon or atropine to minimize gut motility on UGI exams If barcotics aregiven for the procedure, reverse with Narcan; makes vessel easier to see Checkfor coagulation defects, NSAID use, portal hypertension These conditions

drastically increase bleeding potential of AV malformations.

• Subgroups of AV malformations Single, multiple, hereditary hemorrhagictelangiectasia; gastric antral vascular ectasia (GAVE, watermelon stomach)

• Results Sustained reduction in transfusion requirements after laser treatment

in approximately 75% GAVE usually requires 2-3 treatments and sometimesrepeat treatments at a later date HHT patients most difficult to treat and mayneed adjunctive pharmacotherapy (estrogen-progesterone, danazol)

102 Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

13

• Complications Continued bleeding, not controlled (10%), perforation 3% in UGI tract and higher in right colon; antral narrowing, not clinicallysignificant Need for surgery, usually with GAVE, approximately 15%

2-Radiation Proctitis

• Really a vasculopathy, after radiation to area of rectum (pelvic malignancies),resulting in chronic bleeding Anemia is due to bleeding and radiation effect

on pelvic bone marrow

• Enema techniques rarely effective and can increase bleeding

• Nd:YAG treatment

- Treat as one treats AVMs Coagulate surface vessel and submucosal feeder Power50-60 watts, 0.5-1.0 sec pulse duration at 1 cm distance to target Anal vergemost difficult

- Results Decrease bleeding in many patients However, sizeable minority ofpatients are not improved

- Complications Perforation (3-5%); rectovaginal fistula; temporary increasedbleeding from iatrogenic ulcer at treatment site

• KTP laser Similar goals and results to YAG May be better at anal verge

esoph-3 Sibille A, Descamps C, Jonard P et al Endoscopic Nd:YAG treatment of cial gastric carcinoma: Experience in 18 Western inoperable patients Gastrointes-tinal Endosc 1995; 42:340-345

superfi-4 Brunetaud JM, Maunoury V, Cochelard D Lasers in rectosigmoid tumors SemSurg Oncol 1995; 11:319-327

5 Laukka MA, Wand KK Endoscopic Nd:YAG laser palliation of malignant nal tumors Gastrointestinal Endosc 1995; 41:225-229

duode-6 Overholt BF, Panjepour M Photodynamic therapy in Barrett’s esophagus: tion of specialized mucosa, ablation of dysplasia and treatment of superficial esoph-ageal cancer Sem Surg Oncol 1995; 11:372-376

Reduc-7 Spinelli P, Mancini A, DalFante M Endoscopic teatment of gastrointestinal tumors.Sem Surg Oncol 1995; 11:307-317

8 Mellow MH Endoscopic laser therapy for colorectal neoplasms Pract Gastroenterol1997; 8:9-20

9 Van Cutsem E, Boonen A, Geboes K Risk factors which determine the long termoutcome of Nd:YAG laser palliation of colorectal cancer Int J Colorect Dis 1989;4:9-11

10 Mellow MH Endoscopic laser therapy as an alternative to palliative surgery foradenocarcinoma of the rectun—Comparison of costs and complications Gas-trointestinal Endosc 1989; 35:283-287

11 Patrice T, Foultier MT, Yatayo S Endoscopic photodynamic therapy with HPDfor primary treatment of gastrointestinal neoplasms in inoperable patients DigDis Sci 1990; 35:545-552

12 Brunetaud JM Endoscopic laser treatment for a rectosigmoid villous adenoma:Factors affecting results Gastroenterology 1989; 97:272-277

13 Barbatza C, Spencer GM, Thorpes M et al Nd:YAG laser treatment for bleeidngfrom radiation proctitis J Endosc 1996; 28:497-500

CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 14

Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, edited by Jacques Van Dam and Richard C K Wong.

©2004 Landes Bioscience

Endoscopy of the Pregnant Patient

Laurence S Bailen and Lori B Olans

Indications

• Endoscopy during pregnancy may play a role in making a definitive diagnosis

in patients who are unresponsive to standard therapy or who have atypical toms Endoscopy can also provide a safer alternative than more invasive ap-proaches such as surgery.1 Indications for esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD),flexible sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy, and endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography (ERCP) are considered below

vomit-• Suspected esophageal or gastric malignancy in which biopsy prior to postpartumperiod would influence management

Flexible Sigmoidoscopy2

- Refractory distal colonic gastrointestinal bleeding (e.g., suspected colitis)

- Suspected rectal or sigmoid mass, stricture, or other obstructing lesion wherebiopsy prior to postpartum period would influence management

- Severe refractory diarrhea of unclear etiology

Medication Safety

• The fetal safety of medications used during endoscopy is often determined bycase reports in the medical literature and Food and Drug Administration (FDA)categorization.1-4 Drugs are classified as category A, B, C, D, or X based on thelevel of risk to the fetus (Table 14.1).4

Preparation

• EGD and ERCP

- Nothing to eat or drink for 8-12 hours prior to procedure

- Assure adequate hydration with intravenous fluids if necessary

• Flexible sigmoidoscopy

- Clear liquid diet day prior to examination

- Choices for distal bowel cleansing may include enemas, suppositories, and /

or oral cathartics such as the following: Tap water or Fleet’s enemas, dulcolaxsuppositories or tablets, and magnesium citrate oral solution The FDAcategorization for these medications regarding risk to the fetus is summa-rized in Table 14.2

- Safest options based on limited data: Gentle tap water enemas and/or dulcolaxsuppositories or tablets.2

• Colonoscopy (See Table 14.2)

- Polyethylene glycol (PEG) solution (e.g., GoLytely, CoLyte, NuLytely) tients must drink approximately 4 L of this isosmotic solution to achieveadequate bowel cleansing No study on safety of PEG during pregnancy butlimited data suggest safety when used in the puerperium.5, 2

Pa Sodium phosphate solution (Fleet’s PhosphoSoda) Patients often prefer thispoorly absorbed salt solution which causes an osmotic diarrhea because thevolume required for bowel cleansing is less than the volume of PEG solu-tion needed Little data on safety available One case report of bone growthfailure in an infant born to an anorexic mother with maternal phosphateoverload due to excessive phosphate enema use during pregnancy.6, 2

105 Endoscopy of the Pregnant Patient

14

Drugs Used as Premedications and During Endoscopy

• Flexible sigmoidoscopy is routinely performed without premedication ever, given the discomfort associated with upper endoscopic and colonoscopicprocedures, only rare patients are able to complete these procedures withoutmedications

How-• Table 14.3 outlines common medications used during endoscopy to enhancepatient comfort along with the associated FDA categorization

• Diazepam is a benzodiazepine which may cause neonatal floppy infant drome (hypotonia, lethargy, irritability) if given to mothers during labor.4, 2

syn-There is a suggested but not proved increased risk of congenital malformationsand central nervous system problems when given to pregnant women.2, 4

• Midazolam is a newer benzodiazepine compared to diazepam Less data on itsuse in pregnancy are available Midazolam prior to caesarean section may have

a depressant effect on newborns 4 2 In many reports of use during endoscopy inpregnancy, midazolam caused no obvious illeffects.79

• Meperidine is commonly used for endoscopic premedication during pregnancy

No known fetal problems during pregnancy except when given during laborwhen it may cause transient respiratory depression and impaired alertness.4, 2

• Fentanyl is a Category B drug with no known associated congenital defects.One case of respiratory depression in an infant born to a mother who receivedepidural fentanyl during labor.4, 2

Table 14.1 FDA categorization based on fetal effects

Category A Controlled studies in women fail to demonstrate a risk to the fetus

in the first trimester (and there is no evidence of a risk in later

trimesters), and the possibility of fetal harm appears remote

Category B Either animal-reproduction studies have not demonstrated a fetal

risk, but there are no controlled studies in pregnant women or

animal-reproduction studies have shown an adverse effect (otherthan a decrease in fertility) that was not confirmed in controlled

studies in women in the first trimester (and there is no evidence of

a risk in later trimesters)

Category C Either studies in animals revealed adverse effects on the fetus

(teratogenic or embryocidal, or other) and there are no controlledstudies in women or studies in women and animals are not

available Drugs should be given only if the potential benefit

justifies the potential risk to the fetus

Category D There is positive evidence of human fetal risk, but the benefits from

use in pregnant women may be acceptable despite the risk (e.g., ifthe drug is needed in a life-threatening situation or for a serious

disease for which safer drugs cannot be used or are ineffective)

Category X Studies in animals or human beings have demonstrated fetal

abnormalities, or there is evidence of fetal risk based on human

experience, or both, and the risk of the use of the drug in pregnantwomen clearly outweighs any possible benefit The drug is

contraindicated in women who are or may become pregnant

106 Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

14

• Droperidol is a butyrophenone derivative with sedative and antiemetic effects

It has been used as an adjunct to sedation in caesarean sections and in the agement of hyperemesis gravidarum without documented fetal harm.4

man-• Simethicone is a silicon product which eliminates gas bubbles that may impairendoscopic visualization Use of this Category C drug during pregnancy is usu-ally avoided due to limited data reporting a possible increase in birth defects.4, 2

• When necessary, medications administered during pregnancy should be givenjudiciously due to the lack of definitive studies regarding fetal outcome Based

on the available data, meperidine and fentanyl are likely safer medications whencompared with diazepam and midazolam.1

Monitoring

• Noninvasive monitoring provides valuable information prior to and during doscopic procedures to assist in maximizing maternal and fetal well-being

en-• Recommended monitoring includes the following:2

• Supplemental oxygen with continuous pulse oximetry

• Blood pressure and telemetry monitoring

• Continuous fetal heart monitoring or, when not technically possible, tent fetal monitoring

intermit-• Anesthesia support may be helpful for long or complicated procedures to assistwith medication administration and monitoring

• Abdominal pelvic shielding with lead should be used when fluoroscopy is neededduring ERCP Procedures should be performed by experienced endoscopists inorder to minimize fluoroscopy time

Results and Outcomes of Endoscopy During Pregnancy

• Esophagogastroduodenoscopy

- The largest series of EGD during pregnancy, a case control study, included

83 procedures.8

- Gastrointestinal bleeding was the most common indication

- The most frequent finding for this indication was reflux esophagitis Otherfindings included Mallory-Weiss tear, gastritis, and duodenal ulcer

- Common findings for symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and abdominal painwere esophagitis and gastritis

- Meperidine, midazolam, diazepam, and naloxone were all used out incident

with-Table 14.2 Bowel preparation prior to colonoscopy in the pregnant patient

Polyethylene glycol (GoLytely, CoLyte, NuLytely) Category C

Sodium phosphate solution Unlabeled

(Fleets Phospho-Soda, Fleet’s enema)

Dulcolax suppositories/tablets Category B

107 Endoscopy of the Pregnant Patient

• Flexible sigmoidoscopy

- The largest study of pregnant women undergoing flexible sigmoidoscopyincluded 46 patients 7 Procedures were performed throughout all trimes-ters of gestation

- The most common indication was hematochezia This indication also hadthe highest diagnostic yield

- Inflammatory bowel disease and internal hemorrhoids were the most mon findings Other findings included infectious colitis, polyps, anasto-motic ulceration, colon cancer, and normal examination

com No maternal complications were noted No significant differences in tal outcome (including congenital defects, premature delivery, and Apgarscores) compared to control group and to national averages No poor fetaloutcomes (including stillbirth and involuntary abortion) could be ascribed

fe-to the procedure

• Colonoscopy

- Limited data on colonoscopy during pregnancy

- Largest published series of colonoscopy during pregnancy included eightpatients Four procedures were performed in first trimester and four wereperformed in the second trimester.7

- Indications for colonoscopy included persistent bloody diarrhea and dominal pain

ab Most common finding was colitis Other findings included hemorrhoids,anastomotic ulceration, and normal examination

- No reported fetal or maternal complications related to the procedure

Table 14.3 Medication for GI endoscopy in the pregnant patient

108 Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

14

• Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography

- The largest published series of ERCP during pregnancy included 29 dures performed throughout gestation.9

proce Indications for ERCP included abdominal pain with abnormal liver tion tests with or without abnormal abdominal ultrasound

func The most common finding was choledocholithiasis Other findings includedprimary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), biliary leak, pancreas divisum, pan-creatic duct stricture, and normal examination

- Therapeutic procedures included endoscopic sphincterotomy, biliary stentplacement, stone extraction, and stricture dilatation

- Meperidine, diazepam, midazolam, glucagon, and atropine were used out incident

with ERCP was performed in the prone position or in the left lateral decubitusposition in later stages of pregnancy Fluoroscopy time was minimized bydirectly cannulating with a sphincterotome and aspirating bile to confirmlocation

- Pancreatitis occurred following each of three ERCPs in one pregnant tient One spontaneous abortion and one neonatal death were reported with-out apparent causal relationship to the procedure

pa The present role of endoscopic ultrasound and magnetic resonancecholangiopancreatography (MRCP) in pregnant patients withpancreaticobiliary symptoms and signs is unknown Future studies may dem-onstrate less maternal and fetal risks with these procedures.2

Conclusion

• Endoscopic procedures during gestation can provide valuable diagnostic mation, offer definitive therapy, and avoid more invasive approaches such assurgery The little data available suggest that endoscopy can be performed safely

infor-in the pregnant patient However, given the potential risks endoscopy shouldonly be performed when clearly indicated Careful attention should be given tothe safety of medications used and to noninvasive monitoring in order to maxi-mize maternal and fetal well-being Close collaboration between gastroenter-ologist and obstetrician is essential

ad-109 Endoscopy of the Pregnant Patient

14

7 Cappell MS, Colon VJ, Sidhom OA A study at 10 medical centers of the safetyand efficacy of 48 flexible sigmoidoscopies and 8 colonoscopies during pregnancywith follow-up of fetal outcome and with comparison to control groups Dig DisSci 1996; 41:235-361

8 Cappell MS, Colon VJ, Sidhom OA A study of eight medical centers of the safetyand clinical efficacy of esophagogastroduodenoscopy in 83 pregnant females withfollowup of fetal outcome with comparison control groups Am J Gastroenterol1996; 91:348-354

9 Jamidar PA, Beck GJ, Hoffman BJ et al Endoscopic retrograde pancreatography in pregnancy Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90:126-137