In a report of a 61-year-old man with bilateral PION after cardiac bypass surgery, MRI of the orbits with diffusion-weighted and fl uid-attenuated inver-sion recovery FLAIR sequences can
Trang 1had a fi nal visual outcome of hand motion or
worse All patients developed optic disc atrophy
Approximately 66% of patients had vascular
risk factors, such as hypertension, diabetes
mellitus, hypercholesterolemia, coronary artery
disease, congestive heart failure, cardiac
arrhythmia, obesity, and tobacco use The
remainder had no vascular risk factors
The average duration of operation was 8.7 h
The mean decrease of hematocrit was 14.4%
between the preoperative and the
periopera-tive period The mean decrease of systolic blood
pressure was 53 mmHg between the
preopera-tive and the perioperapreopera-tive period The mean
intraoperative estimated blood loss was 3.7 L
If no intraoperative hypotension is
docu-mented during the surgery, then anemia is most
likely, as evidenced by a mean hemoglobin level
that has decreased by 40% to 50% in the
peri-operative period.228
Neuroimaging of the optic nerves in the
peri-operative setting can sometimes show the
loca-tion of the lesion in PION In a report of a
61-year-old man with bilateral PION after
cardiac bypass surgery, MRI of the orbits with
diffusion-weighted and fl uid-attenuated
inver-sion recovery (FLAIR) sequences can reveal
abnormal hyperintensity in both intraorbital
optic nerves.245 Bilateral intraorbital optic nerve
enhancement was seen on MRI 8 weeks after
coronary bypass grafting in a 57-year-old
woman who had hypotensive posterior
isch-emic optic neuropathy.246
Histopathology demonstrates that infarction
occurs in the intraorbital portion of the optic
nerve in patients with perioperative PION The
central axial portion of the optic nerve is usually
infarcted, and may be hemorrhagic, with sparing
of the nerve periphery Occasionally, the
infarc-tion may extend to the periphery
circumferen-tially, especially in the midorbital section of the
optic nerve The loss of peripheral axons appears
to correspond to constricted visual fi elds.247–249
In the report by Nawa et al.248 on a 67-year-old
man with bilateral PION after radical neck
dissection complicated by intraoperative
hypo-tension and anemia, histopathology of the
optic nerve revealed acellularity of the fi
bro-vascular pial septae, swollen macrophages,
some hemorrhage, and loss of myelin The
para-central pial vessels had a few small thrombi, but
no emboli
Perioperative hemodynamic changes causing decreased oxygen delivery to the optic nerve are thought to cause PION These hemody-namic factors include hypotension, anemia, increased venous pressure, a prone position during surgery, direct ocular compression, increased cerebrospinal fl uid pressure, and embolism Another factor that may decrease oxygen delivery to the optic nerve is defective vascular autoregulation caused by vascular endothelial dysfunction.250 It has been shown that normal compensatory vasoconstriction and vasodilation during fl uctuating blood pressures does not occur in diabetic patients.251 This lack
of vascular autoregulation during perioperative hypotensive episodes would increase the risk of developing perioperative PION Anatomic variation of the intraorbital blood supply may also account for a patient’s susceptibility to perioperative PION The arterial supply of the intraorbital optic nerve derives from two sepa-rate systems, the peripheral centripetal vessels and the axial centrifugal vessels.252 The pial plexus is formed by collaterals directly from the ophthalmic artery and from collateral from other intraorbital subdivisions of the ophthal-mic artery The axial system is formed from branches of the central retinal artery after it penetrates the optic nerve sheath These branches radiate from the central optic nerve
to penetrate the parenchyma The anastomoses between the peripheral and central vascular systems may vary among patients Those who lack these anastomoses have a watershed zone that is more susceptible to ischemia during perioperative hemodynamic changes.252
Treatment for PION is limited at this time Perioperative correction of hemodynamic abnormalities may be benefi cial in certain instances In a report by Stevens et al.,242 cor-rection of anemia and hypotension led to com-plete visual recovery in one patient, who received blood transfusions to maintain a hema-tocrit above 35% and a blood pressure about 140/80 mmHg by discontinuation of antihyper-tensive medications Postoperative visual acuity was 20/70 in the right eye (OD) and 20/200 in the left eye (OS) After transfusion, visual acuity
Trang 252 J.W Chan
was 20/40 OD and 20/30 OS Seven months
later, his visual acuity improved to 20/20 OU
This report suggests that early transfusion for
perioperative anemia can prevent
periopera-tive PION Specifi c clinical guidelines for
trans-fusion have been controversial, and the decision
to transfuse should be based upon the patient’s
risk of developing complications of decreased
oxygenation.253
In addition, simultaneous internal jugular
vein ligation should be avoided to prevent
PION after radical neck dissection Staging of
the neck dissection does not appear to prevent
The visual prognosis for PION is usually poor
No proven effective treatment is available to
reverse visual loss.19
References
1 Johnson LN, Arnold AC Incidence of
nonarter-itic and arternonarter-itic anterior ischemic optic
neu-ropathy Population-based study in the state of
Missouri and Los Angeles County, California
J Neuro-Ophthalmol 1994;14(1):38–44.
2 Hayreh SS, Joos KM, Podhajsky PA, Long CR
Systemic diseases associated with nonarteritic
anterior ischemic optic neuropathy Am J
Oph-thalmol 1994;118(6):766–80.
3 Boghen DR, Glaser JS Ischaemic optic
neu-ropathy The clinical profi le and history Brain
1975;98(4):689–708.
4 Characteristics of patients with nonarteritic
anterior ischemic optic neuropathy eligible for
the Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
Decompres-sion Trial Arch Ophthalmol 1996;114(11):
1366–74.
5 Guyer DR, Miller NR, Auer CL, Fine SL The risk
of cerebrovascular and cardiovascular disease in patients with anterior ischemic optic neuropathy Arch Ophthalmol 1985;103(8):1136–42.
6 Hayreh SS, Zimmerman B Visual fi eld malities in nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy: their pattern and prevalence at initial examination Arch Ophthalmol 2005; 123(11):1554–62.
7 Repka MX, Savino PJ, Schatz NJ, Sergott RC Clinical profi le and long-term implications of anterior ischemic optic neuropathy Am J Oph- thalmol 1983;96(4):478–83.
8 Spalton DJ, Hitchings RA, Hunter PA, editors; Tan JCH, associate editor; Harry J, pathology advisor Atlas of clinical ophthalmology Phila- delphia, Edinburgh: Elsevier Mosby; 2005.
9 Arnold AC Pathogenesis of nonarteritic rior ischemic optic neuropathy J Neuro- Ophthalmol 2003;23(2):157–63.
10 Danesh-Meyer HV, Savino PJ, Sergott RC The prevalence of cupping in end-stage arteritic and nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy Ophthalmology 2001;108(3):593–8.
11 Optic nerve decompression surgery for arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION) is not effective and may be harmful The Ischemic Optic Neuropathy Decompres- sion Trial Research Group JAMA 1995;273(8): 625–32.
12 Ischemic Optic Neuropathy Decompression Trial: twenty-four-month update Arch Oph- thalmol 2000;118(6):793–8.
13 Arnold AC, Hepler RS Natural history of arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy J Neuro-Ophthalmol 1994;14(2):66–9.
14 Hayreh SS Anterior ischaemic optic thy Differentiation of arteritic from non- arteritic type and its management Eye 1990; 4(pt 1):25–41.
15 Newman NJ, Scherer R, Langenberg P, et al.; Ischemic Optic Neuropathy Decompression Trial Research Group The fellow eye in NAION: report from the ischemic optic neu- ropathy decompression trial follow-up study
Am J Ophthalmol 2002;134(3):317–28.
16 Beck RW, Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Tan ES, Moke PS Aspirin therapy in nonarteritic ante- rior ischemic optic neuropathy Am J Ophthal- mol 1997;123(2):212–7.
17 Goff MJ, Kerrison JB Bilateral simultaneous anterior ischemic optic neuropathy in a young, healthy man Arch Ophthalmol 2003;121(11): 1652–3.
Trang 318 Lee AG, Lin DJ, Kaufman M, Golnik KC,
Vaph-iades MS, Eggenberger E Atypical features
prompting neuroimaging in acute optic
neu-ropathy in adults Can J Ophthalmol 2000;
35(6):325–30.
19 Miller NR, Newman NJ, editors Walsh and
Hoyt’s clinical neuro-ophthalmology, 5th ed
Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1998.
20 Rath EZ, Rehany U, Linn S, Rumelt S
Correla-tion between optic disc atrophy and aetiology:
anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy vs optic
neuritis Eye 2003;17(9):1019–24.
21 Arnold AC Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy
following ocular pneumoplethysmography J
Clin Neuro-Ophthalmol 1987;7(1):58–9.
22 Rizzo JF III, Andreoli CM, Rabinov JD Use of
magnetic resonance imaging to differentiate
optic neuritis and nonarteritic anterior ischemic
optic neuropathy Ophthalmology 2002;109(9):
1679–84.
23 Chung SM, Gay CA, McCrary JA III
Nonarter-itic ischemic optic neuropathy The impact of
tobacco use Ophthalmology 1994;101(4):
779–82.
24 Jacobson DM, Vierkant RA, Belongia EA
Nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic
neuro-pathy A case-control study of potential
risk factors Arch Ophthalmol 1997;115(11):
1403–7.
25 Salomon O, Huna-Baron R, Kurtz S, et al
Anal-ysis of prothrombotic and vascular risk factors
in patients with nonarteritic anterior ischemic
optic neuropathy Ophthalmology 1999;106(4):
739–42.
26 Fry CL, Carter JE, Kanter MC, Tegeler CH,
Tuley MR Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy
is not associated with carotid artery
atheroscle-rosis Stroke 1993;24(4):539–42.
27 Tesser RA, Niendorf ER, Levin LA The
mor-phology of an infarct in nonarteritic anterior
ischemic optic neuropathy Ophthalmology
2003;110(10):2031–5.
28 Beck RW, Savino PJ, Repka MX, Schatz NJ,
Sergott RC Optic disc structure in anterior
ischemic optic neuropathy Ophthalmology
1984;91(11):1334–7.
29 Feit RH, Tomsak RL, Ellenberger C Jr
Struc-tural factors in the pathogenesis of ischemic
optic neuropathy Am J Ophthalmol 1984;98(1):
105–8.
30 Eagling EM, Sanders MD, Miller SJ Ischaemic
papillopathy Clinical and fl uorescein
angio-graphic review of forty cases Br J Ophthalmol
1974;58(12):990–1008.
31 Arnold AC, Badr MA, Hepler RS Fluorescein angiography in nonischemic optic disc edema Arch Ophthalmol 1996;114(3):293–8.
32 Arnold AC, Hepler RS Fluorescein angiography
in acute nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic ropathy Am J Ophthalmol 1994;117(2):222–30.
33 Knox DL, Kerrison JB, Green WR logic studies of ischemic optic neuropathy Trans
Histopatho-Am Ophthalmol Soc 2000;98:203–20; discussion 221–2.
34 Olver JM, Spalton DJ, McCartney AC Microvascular study of the retrolaminar optic nerve in man: the possible signifi cance in anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy Eye 1990; 4(pt 1):7–24.
35 Onda E, Cioffi GA, Bacon DR, Van Buskirk
EM Microvasculature of the human optic nerve Am J Ophthalmol 1995;120(1):92–102.
36 Hayreh SS, Piegors DJ, Heistad DD induced constriction of ocular arteries in ath- erosclerotic monkeys Implications for ischemic disorders of the retina and optic nerve head Arch Ophthalmol 1997;115(2):220–8.
37 Landau K, Winterkorn JM, Mailloux LU, Vetter
W, Napolitano B 24-hour blood pressure toring in patients with anterior ischemic optic neuropathy Arch Ophthalmol 1996;114(5): 570–5.
38 Harris A, Ciulla TA, Chung HS, Martin B ulation of retinal and optic nerve blood fl ow Arch Ophthalmol 1998;116(11):1491–5.
39 Hayreh SS Retinal and optic nerve head emic disorders and atherosclerosis: role of sero- tonin Prog Ret Eye Res 1999;18(2):191–221.
40 Strenn K, Matulla B, Wolzt M, et al Reversal
of endothelin-1-induced ocular hemodynamic effects by low-dose nifedipine in humans Clin Pharmacol Ther 1998;63(1):54–63.
41 Oku H, Sugiyama T, Kojima S, Watanabe T, Azuma I Experimental optic cup enlargement caused by endothelin-1-induced chronic optic nerve head ischemia Surv Ophthalmol 1999; 44(suppl 1):S74–84.
42 Saraux H, Murat JP Pseudopapillitis of vascular origin Ann Ocul (Paris) 1967;200(1):1–19.
43 Keltner JL, Becker B, Gay AJ, Podos SM Effect
of diphenylhydantoin in ischemic optic neuritis Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1972;70:113–30.
44 Johnson LN, Gould TJ, Krohel GB Effect of levodopa and carbidopa on recovery of visual function in patients with nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy of longer than six months’ duration Am J Ophthalmol 1996; 121(1):77–83.
Trang 454 J.W Chan
45 Smith JL Norepinephrine therapy of ischemic
optic neuropathy J Clin Neuro-Ophthalmol
1981;1(4):289–90.
46 Kollarits CR, McCarthy RW, Corrie WS, et al
Norepinephrine therapy of ischemic optic
neu-ropathy J Clin Neuro-Ophthalmol 1981;1:283–8.
47 Kajiwara K, Tsubota K, Hara Y High-dose
uro-kinase thrombolysis and stellate ganglion block
for anterior ischemic optic neuropathy Folia
Ophthalmol Jpn 1990;41:59–64.
48 Hayreh SS AION Berlin: Springer-Verlag;
1975.
49 Botelho PJ, Johnson LN, Arnold AC The effect
of aspirin on the visual outcome of nonarteritic
anterior ischemic optic neuropathy Am J
Oph-thalmol 1996;121(4):450–1.
50 Maas A, Walzl M, Jesenik F, et al Application
of HELP in nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic
neuropathy: a prospective, randomized,
con-trolled study Graefe’s Arch Clin Exp
Ophthal-mol 1997;235:14–9.
51 Yee RD, Selky AK, Purvin VA Outcomes of
optic nerve sheath decompression for
nonarter-itic ischemic optic neuropathy J
Neuro-Ophthalmol 1994;14(2):70–6.
52 Beck RW, Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Tan ES,
Moke PS Aspirin therapy in nonarteritic
ante-rior ischemic optic neuropathy J Ophthalmol
1997;123(2):212–7.
53 Newman NJ, Scherer R, Langenberg P, et al.;
Ischemic Optic Neuropathy Decompression
Trial Research Group The fellow eye in
NAION: report from the ischemic optic
neu-ropathy decompression trial follow-up study
Am J Ophthalmol 2002;134(3):317–28.
54 The BRAION study group; Wilhelm B, Ludtke
H, Wilhelm H Effi cacy and tolerability of 0.2%
brimonidine tartrate for the treatment of acute
non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic
neuropa-thy (NAION): a 3-month, double-masked,
ran-domized, placebo-controlled trial Graefes Arch
Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2006;244(5):551–8.
55 Johnson LN, Guy ME, Krohel GB, Madsen RW
Levodopa may improve vision loss in
recent-onset, nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic
neu-ropathy Ophthalmology 2000;107(3):521–6.
56 Simsek T, Eryilmaz T, Acaroglu G Effi cacy of
levodopa and carbidopa on visual function in
patients with non-arteritic anterior ischaemic
optic neuropathy Int J Clin Pract 2005;59(3):
287–90.
57 Bojic L, Ivanisevic M, Gosovic G Hyperbaric
oxygen therapy in two patients with
non-arteritic anterior optic neuropathy who did not
respond to prednisone Undersea Hyper Med 2002;29(2):86–92.
58 Bojic L, Cerovski B, Bucan K, et al Hyperbaric oxygen for the treatment of nonarteritic ante- rior ischemic optic neuropathy Acta Med Croat 1995;49(3):133–6.
59 Bojic L, Kovacevic H, Andric D, Kraljevic K, Cagalj S The effects of hyperbaric oxygen on visual functions in ischaemic optic neuropathy Arh Hig Rad Toksikol 1994;45(1): 19–24.
60 Arnold AC, Hepler RS, Lieber M, Alexander
JM Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy Am J Oph- thalmol 1996;122(4):535–41.
61 Soheilian M, Koochek A, Yazdani S, Peyman
GA Transvitreal optic neurotomy for itic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy Retina 2003;23(5):692–7.
62 Lubow M, Makley TA Jr Pseudopapilledema of juvenile diabetes mellitus Arch Ophthalmol 1971;85(4):417–22.
63 Barr CC, Glaser JS, Blankenship G Acute disc swelling in juvenile diabetes Clinical profi le and natural history of 12 cases Arch Ophthal- mol 1980;98(12):2185–92.
64 Pavan PR, Aiello LM, Wafai MZ, Briones JC, Sebestyen JG, Bradbury MJ Optic disc edema
in juvenile-onset diabetes Arch Ophthalmol 1980;98(12):2193–5.
65 Hayreh SS, Zahoruk RM Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy VI In juvenile diabetics Ophthalmologica 1981;182(1):13–28.
66 Friedland S, Winterkorn JM, Burde RM Luxury perfusion following anterior ischemic optic neu- ropathy J Neuro-Ophthalmol 1996;16(3):163–71.
67 Ho AC, Maguire AM, Yanuzzi LA, et al Rapidly progressive optic disc neovascularization after diabetic papillopathy Am J Ophthalmol 1995; 120:673–5.
68 Katz B Disc swelling in an adult diabetic patient Surv Ophthalmol 1990;35(2):158–63.
69 Regillo CD, Brown GC, Savino PJ, et al betic papillopathy Patient characteristics and fundus fi ndings Arch Ophthalmol 1995;113(7): 889–95.
70 Sato T, Fujikado T, Hosohata J, Ohji M, Tano Y Development of bilateral, nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy in an eye with diabetic papillopathy Jpn J Ophthalmol 2004; 48(2):158–62.
71 Munteanu M, Lehaci C Acute anterior emic optic neuropathy in association with optic nerve drusen Oftalmologia 2004;48(3):16–9.
Trang 572 Purvin V, King R, Kawasaki A, Yee R Anterior
ischemic optic neuropathy in eyes with optic
disc drusen Arch Ophthalmol 2004;122(1):
48–53.
73 Weger M, Haas A, Stanger O, et al Chlamydia
pneumoniae seropositivity and the risk of
non-arteritic ischemic optic neuropathy
Ophthal-mology 2002;109(4):749–52.
74 Vecsei PV, Kircher K, Reitner A, Khanakha G,
Stanek G Chlamydia in anterior ischemic optic
neuropathy Ophthalmologica 2002;216(3):
215–20.
75 Drance SM, Morgan RW, Sweeney VP
Shock-induced optic neuropathy: a cause of
nonprogressive glaucoma N Engl J Med 1973;
288(8):392–5.
76 Hayreh SS Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy
VIII Clinical features and pathogenesis of
post-hemorrhagic amaurosis Ophthalmology
1987;94(11):1488–502.
77 Hollenhorst RW, Wagener HP Loss of vision
after distant hemorrhage Am J Med Sci 1950;
219:209–44.
78 Moster ML Visual loss after coronary artery
bypass surgery Surv Ophthalmol 1998;42(5):
453–7.
79 Foroozan R, Buono LM, Savino PJ Optic disc
structure and shock-induced anterior ischemic
optic neuropathy Ophthalmology 2003;110(2):
327–31.
80 Chisholm IA Optic neuropathy of recurrent
blood loss Br J Ophthalmol 1969;53(5):
289–95.
81 Lazaro EJ, Cinotti AA, Eichler PN, Khawaja
AA Amaurosis due to massive gastrointestinal
hemorrhage Am J Gastroenterol 1971;55(1):
50–3.
82 Klewin KM, Appen RE, Kaufman PL
Amau-rosis and blood loss Am J Ophthalmol 1978;
86(5):669–72.
83 Johnson MW, Kincaid MC, Trobe JD Bilateral
retrobulbar optic nerve infarctions after blood
loss and hypotension A clinicopathologic case
study Ophthalmology 1987;94(12):1577–84.
84 Chan JW Acute bilateral simultaneous PION
after ectopic pregnancy-related haemorrhage
Eye 2006;20(6):747–8.
85 Presencia AC, Hernandez, Guia ED Amaurosis
following blood loss Ophthalmologica 1985;191:
119–22.
86 Basile C, Addabbo G, Montanaro A Anterior
ischemic optic neuropathy and dialysis: role of
hypotension and anemia J Nephrol 2001;14(5):
420–3.
87 Chutorian AM, Winterkorn JM, Geffner M Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy in children: case reports and review of the literature Pediatr Neurol 2002;26(5):358–64.
88 Servilla KS, Groggel GC Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy as a complication of hemodi- alysis Am J Kidney Dis 1986;8(1):61–3.
89 Hamed LM, Winward KE, Glaser JS, Schatz NJ Optic neuropathy in uremia Am J Ophthalmol 1989;108(1):30–5.
90 Connolly SE, Gordon KB, Horton JC Salvage
of vision after hypotension-induced ischemic optic neuropathy Am J Ophthalmol 1994; 117(2):235–42.
91 Korzets A, Marashek I, Schwartz A, Rosenblatt
I, Herman M, Ori Y Ischemic optic neuropathy
in dialyzed patients: a previously unrecognized manifestation of calcifi c uremic arteriolopathy
Am J Kidney Dis 2004;44(6):e93–7.
92 Alpert JN, Pena Y, Leachman DR Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy after coronary bypass surgery Tex Med 1987;83(8):45–7.
93 Larkin DF, Wood AE, Neligan M, Eustace P Ischaemic optic neuropathy complicating car- diopulmonary bypass Br J Ophthalmol 1987; 71(5):344–7.
94 Rizzo JF III, Lessell S Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy during general surgery Am J Oph- thalmol 1987;103(6):808–11.
95 Shahian DM, Speert PK Symptomatic visual defi cits after open heart operations Ann Thorac Surg 1989;48(2):275–9.
96 Tice DA Ischemic optic neuropathy and cardiac surgery Ann Thorac Surg 1987;44(6):677.
97 Brown RH, Schauble JF, Miller NR Anemia and hypotension as contributors to periopera- tive loss of vision Anesthesiology 1994;80(1): 222–6.
98 Ballen PH, Fox MJ, Weissman GS Ischemic optic neuropathy secondary to intestinal hem- orrhage Ann Ophthalmol 1985;17(8):486–8.
99 Jaben SL, Glaser JS, Daily M Ischemic optic ropathy following general surgical procedures
neu-J Clin Neuro-Ophthalmol 1983;3(4):239–44.
100 Katz DM, Trobe JD, Cornblath WT, Kline LB Ischemic optic neuropathy after lumbar spine surgery Arch Ophthalmol 1994;112(7):925–31.
101 Lee AG Ischemic optic neuropathy following lumbar spine surgery Case report J Neurosurg 1995;83(2):348–9.
102 Tidow-Kebritchi S, Jay WM Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy following off-pump cardiac bypass surgery Semin Ophthalmol 2003;18(4): 166–8.
Trang 656 J.W Chan
103 Foroozan R, Varon J Bilateral anterior ischemic
optic neuropathy after liposuction J
Neuro-Ophthalmol 2004;24(3):211–3.
104 Minagar A, Schatz NJ, Glaser JS Liposuction
and ischemic optic neuropathy Case report
and review of literature J Neurol Sci 2000;
181(1–2):132–6.
105 Tomsak RL, Remler BF Anterior ischemic optic
neuropathy and increased intraocular pressure
J Clin Neuro-Ophthalmol 1989;9(2):116–8.
106 Katz B Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy
and intraocular pressure Arch Ophthalmol
1992;110(5):596–7.
107 Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P,
Alward WL Nocturnal arterial hypotension
and its role in optic nerve head and ocular
ischemic disorders Am J Ophthalmol 1994;
117(5):603–24.
108 Chung SM, Gay CA, McCrary JA III
Non-arteritic ischemic optic neuropathy The impact
of tobacco use Ophthalmology 1994;101(4):
779–82.
109 Shiose Y Intraocular pressure: new
perspec-tives Surv Ophthalmol 1990;34(6):413–35.
110 Williams EL, Hart WM Jr, Tempelhoff R
Post-operative ischemic optic neuropathy Anesth
Analg 1995;80(5):1018–29.
111 Abraham M, Sakhuja N, Sinha S, Rastogi S
Uni-lateral visual loss after cervical spine surgery J
Neurosurg Anesthesiol 2003;15(4):319–22.
112 Golnik KC, Newman SA Anterior ischemic
optic neuropathy associated with macrocytic
anemia J Clin Neuro-Ophthalmol 1990;10(4):
244–7.
113 Foulds WS, Chisholm IA, Stewart JB, Wilson
TM The optic neuropathy of pernicious anemia
Arch Ophthalmol 1969;82(4):427–32.
114 Kacer B, Hattenbach LO, Horle S, Scharrer I,
Kroll P, Koch F Central retinal vein occlusion
and nonarteritic ischemic optic neuropathy in 2
patients with mild iron defi ciency anemia
Oph-thalmologica 2001;215(2):128–31.
115 Acheson JF, Sanders MD Coagulation
abnor-malities in ischaemic optic neuropathy Eye
1994;8(pt 1):89–92.
116 Nagy V, Facsko A, Takacs L, et al Activated
protein C resistance in anterior ischaemic optic
neuropathy Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2004;
82(2):140–3.
117 Stanger O, Weger M, Obeid R, et al Impairment
of homocysteine metabolism in patients with
retinal vascular occlusion and non-arteritic
ischemic optic neuropathy Clin Chem Lab Med
2005;43(10):1020–5.
118 Kawasaki A, Purvin VA, Burgett RA mocysteinaemia in young patients with non- arteritic anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy
Hyperho-Br J Ophthalmol 1999;83(11):1287–90.
119 Glueck CJ, Wang P, Bell H, Rangaraj V, Goldenberg N Nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy: associations with homozy- gosity for the C677T methylenetetrahydrofo- late reductase mutation J Lab Clin Med 2004; 143(3):184–92.
120 Weger M, Stanger O, Deutschmann H, et al Hyperhomocysteinaemia, but not MTHFR C677T mutation, as a risk factor for non-arte- ritic ischaemic optic neuropathy Br J Ophthal- mol 2001;85(7):803–6.
121 Salomon O, Rosenberg N, Steinberg DM, et al Nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropa- thy is associated with a specifi c platelet poly- morphism located on the glycoprotein Ib alpha gene Ophthalmology 2004;111(1):184–8.
122 Levine SR Hypercoagulable states and stroke: a selective review CNS Spectr 2005;10(7):567–78.
123 Luescher TF The endothelium and cular disease: a complex relationship N Engl J Med 1994;330:1081–3.
cardiovas-124 Corbett JJ Neuro-ophthalmic complications of migraine and cluster headaches Neurol Clin 1983;1(4):973–95.
125 Cowan CL Jr, Knox DL Migraine optic ropathy Ann Ophthalmol 1982;14(2):164–6.
neu-126 Katz B, Bamford CR Migrainous ischemic optic neuropathy Neurology 1985;35(1):112–4.
127 McDonald WI, Sanders MD Migraine cated by ischaemic papillopathy Lancet 1971; 2(7723):521–3.
compli-128 Victor DI, Welch RB Bilateral retinal rhages and disk edema in migraine Am J Oph- thalmol 1977;84(4):555–8.
hemor-129 Weinstein JM, Feman SS Ischemic optic ropathy in migraine Arch Ophthalmol 1982; 100(7):1097–100.
neu-130 Flammer J, Pache M, Resink T Vasospasm, its role in the pathogenesis of diseases with par- ticular reference to the eye Prog Ret Eye Res 2001;20(3):319–49.
131 Rufa A, De Stefano N, Dotti MT, et al Acute unilateral visual loss as the fi rst symptom of cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy Arch Neurol 2004;61(4):577–80.
132 Mojon DS, Hedges TR III, Ehrenberg B, et al Association between sleep apnea syndrome and nonarteritic anterior ischemicoptic neu- ropathy Arch Ophthalmol 2002;120(5):601–5.
Trang 7133 Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman B
Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy:
time of onset of visual loss Am J Ophthalmol
1997;124(5):641–7.
134 Hayreh SS The 1994 Von Sallman Lecture The
optic nerve head circulation in health and
disease Exp Eye Res 1995;61(3):259–72.
135 Purvin VA, Kawasaki A, Yee RD Papilledema
and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome Arch
Ophthalmol 2000;118(12):1626–30.
136 Behbehani R, Mathews MK, Sergott RC,
Savino PJ Nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic
neuropathy in patients with sleep apnea while
being treated with continuous positive airway
pressure Am J Ophthalmol 2005;139(3):
518–21.
137 Keltner JL Giant-cell arteritis Signs and
symp-toms Ophthalmology 1982;89(10):1101–10.
138 Aiello AL, Sadun AA, Feldon SE Spontaneous
improvement of progressive anterior ischemic
optic neuropathy: report of two cases Arch
Ophthalmol 1992;110(9):1197–9.
139 Liu GT, Glaser JS, Schatz NJ, Smith JL Visual
morbidity in giant cell arteritis Clinical
charac-teristics and prognosis for vision
Ophthalmol-ogy 1994;101(11):1779–85.
140 Liu NH, LaBree LD, Feldon SE, Rao NA The
epidemiology of giant cell arteritis: a 12-year
retrospective study Ophthalmology 2001;108(6):
1145–9.
141 Tomsak RL Giant cell arteritis Ophthalmology
2002;109(2):219–20.
142 Salvarani C, Cantini F, Boiardi L, Hunder GG
Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant-cell arteritis
N Engl J Med 2002;347(4):261–71.
143 Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Raman R,
Zimmerman B Giant cell arteritis: validity and
reliability of various diagnostic criteria Am J
Ophthalmol 1997;123(3):285–96.
144 Gonzalez-Gay MA, Garcia-Porrua C,
Miranda-Filloy JA Giant cell arteritis: diagnosis and
therapeutic management Curr Rheumatol Rep
2006;8(4):299–302.
145 Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman B
Occult giant cell arteritis: ocular manifestations
Am J Ophthalmol 1998;125(4):521–6.
146 Hayreh SS, Jonas JB Optic disc morphology
after arteritic anterior ischemic optic
neuropa-thy Ophthalmology 2001;108(9):1586–94.
147 Kaiser M, Younge B, Bjornsson J, Goronzy JJ,
Weyand CM Formation of new vaso vasorum
in vasculitis Production of angiogenic cytokines
by multinucleated giant cells Am J Pathol
minor-149 Brack A, Geisler A, Martinez-Taboada VM, Younge BR, Goronzy JJ, Weyand CM Giant cell vasculitis is a T cell-dependent disease Mol Med 1997;3(8):530–43.
150 Martinez-Taboada V, Hunder NN, Hunder GG, Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ Recognition of tissue residing antigen by T cells in vasculitic lesions
of giant cell arteritis J Mol Med 1996;74(11): 695–703.
151 Brack A, Rittner HL, Younge BR, Kaltschmidt
C, Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ mediated repression of cytokine gene transcrip- tion in human arteritis-SCID chimeras J Clin Invest 1997;99(12):2842–50.
Glucocorticoid-152 Rittner HL, Kaiser M, Brack A, Szweda LI, Goronzy JJ, Weyand CM Tissue-destructive macrophages in giant cell arteritis Circ Res 1999;84(9):1050–8.
153 Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ Pathogenic nisms in giant cell arteritis Cleve Clin J Med 2002;69(suppl 2):SII28–32.
mecha-154 Mitchell BM, Font RL Detection of varicella zoster virus DNA in some patients with giant cell arteritis Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2001; 42(11):2572–7.
155 Rimenti G, Blasi F, Cosentini R, et al Temporal
arteritis associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae
DNA detected in an artery specimen J matol 2000;27(11):2718–20.
Rheu-156 Haugeberg G, Bie R, Nordbo SA Temporal
arteritis associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae
DNA detected in an artery specimen J matol 2001;28(7):1738–9.
Rheu-157 Regan MJ, Wood BJ, Hsieh YH, et al Temporal
arteritis and Chlamydia pneumoniae: failure to
detect the organism by polymerase chain tion in ninety cases and ninety controls Arthri- tis Rheum 2002;46(4):1056–60.
reac-158 Helweg-Larsen J, Tarp B, Obel N, Baslund B No
evidence of parvovirus B19, Chlamydia
pneu-moniae or human herpes virus infection in
temporal artery biopsies in patients with giant cell arteritis Rheumatology (Oxf) 2002;41(4): 445–9.
159 Hunder GG, Bloch DA, Michel BA, et al The American College of Rheumatology 1990 crite- ria for the classifi cation of giant cell arteritis Arthritis Rheum 1990;33(8):1122–8.
Trang 858 J.W Chan
160 Evans JM, Hunder GG Polymyalgia
rheumat-ica and giant cell arteritis Rheum Dis Clin N
Am 2000;26(3):493–515.
161 Jundt JW, Mock D Temporal arteritis with
normal erythrocyte sedimentation rates
pre-senting as occipital neuralgia Arthritis Rheum
1991;34(2):217–9.
162 Salvarani C, Hunder GG Giant cell arteritis
with low erythrocyte sedimentation rate:
fre-quency of occurrence in a population-based
study Arthritis Rheum 2001;45(2):140–5.
163 Wise CM, Agudelo CA, Chmelewski WL,
McK-night KM Temporal arteritis with low
erythro-cyte sedimentation rate: a review of fi ve cases
Arthritis Rheum 1991;34(12):1571–4.
164 Wong RL, Korn JH Temporal arteritis without
an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate
Case report and review of the literature Am J
Med 1986;80(5):959–64.
165 Miller A, Green M, Robinson D Simple rule for
calculating normal erythrocyte sedimentation
rate Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983;286(6361):
266.
166 Foroozan R, Danesh-Meyer H, Savino PJ,
Gamble G, Mekari-Sabbagh ON, Sergott RC
Thrombocytosis in patients with biopsy-proven
giant cell arteritis Ophthalmology 2002;109(7):
1267–71.
167 Gonzalez-Alegre P, Ruiz-Lopez AD,
Abarca-Costalago M, Gonzalez-Santos P Increment of
the platelet count in temporal arteritis: response
to therapy and ischemic complications Eur
Neurol 2001;45(1):43–5.
168 Costello F, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky PA,
Hayreh SS Role of thrombocytosis in diagnosis
of giant cell arteritis and differentiation of
arteritic from non-arteritic anterior ischemic
optic neuropathy Eur J Ophthalmol 2004;14(3):
245–57.
169 Salvarani C, Cantini F, Boiardi L, Hunder GG
Laboratory investigations useful in giant cell
arteritis and Takayasu’s arteritis Clin Exp
Rheumatol 2003;21(6 suppl 32):S23–8.
170 Guevara RA, Newman NJ, Grossniklaus HE
Positive temporal artery biopsy 6 months after
prednisone treatment Arch Ophthalmol 1998;
116(9):1252–3.
171 Liu GT, Volpe NJ, Galetta SL
Neuro-ophthalmology: diagnosis and management
Philadelphia: Saunders; 2001.
172 Hall JK, Volpe NJ, Galetta SL, Liu GT, Syed
NA, Balcer LJ The role of unilateral temporal
artery biopsy Ophthalmology 2003;110(3):
543–8.
173 Klein RG, Campbell RJ, Hunder GG, Carney
JA Skip lesions in temporal arteritis Mayo Clin Proc 1976;51(8):504–10.
174 Danesh-Meyer HV, Savino PJ , Eagle RC, et al Low diagnostic yield with second biopsies in suspected giant cell arteritis J Neuro-Ophthal- mol 2000;20:213–5.
175 Pless M, Rizzo JF III, Lamkin JC, Lessell S Concordance of bilateral temporal artery biopsy in giant cell arteritis J Neuro-Ophthal- mol 2000;20(3):216–8.
176 Ray-Chaudhuri N, Kine DA, Tijani SO, et al Effect of prior steroid treatment on temporal artery biopsy fi ndings in giant cell arteritis Br
J Ophthalmol 2002;86(5):530–2.
177 Lie JT Temporal artery biopsy diagnosis of giant cell arteritis: lessons from 1109 biopsies Anat Pathol 1996;1:69–97.
178 Poller DN, van Wyk Q, Jeffrey MJ The tance of skip lesions in temporal arteritis J Clin Pathol 2000;53(2):137–9.
impor-179 McDonnell PJ, Moore GW, Miller NR, Hutchins
GM, Green WR Temporal arteritis A pathologic study Ophthalmology 1986;93(4): 518–30.
clinico-180 Ghanchi FD, Dutton GN Current concepts in giant cell (temporal) arteritis Surv Ophthalmol 1997;42(2):99–123.
181 Nordborg E, Nordborg C Giant cell arteritis: strategies in diagnosis and treatment Curr Opin Rheumatol 2004;16(1):25–30.
182 Ho AC, Sergott RC, Regillo CD, et al Color Doppler hemodynamics of giant cell arteritis Arch Ophthalmol 1994;112(7):938–45.
183 Schmid R, Hermann M, Yannar A, ner RW Color duplex ultrasound of the temporal artery: replacement for biopsy in temporal arteritis Ophthalmologica 2002; 216(1):16–21.
Baumgart-184 Schmidt WA, Kraft HE, Vorpahl K, Volker L, Gromnica-Ihle EJ Color duplex ultrasonogra- phy in the diagnosis of temporal arteritis N Engl J Med 1997;337(19):1336–42.
185 Salvarani C, Silingardi M, Ghirarduzzi A, et al
Is duplex ultrasonography useful for the nosis of giant-cell arteritis? Ann Intern Med 2002;137(4):232–8.
diag-186 Morgenstern KE, Ellis BD, Schochet SS, Linberg
JV Bilateral optic nerve sheath enhancement from giant cell arteritis J Rheumatol 2003;30(3): 625–7.
187 Lee AG, Eggenberger ER, Kaufman DI, rique C Optic nerve enhancement on magnetic resonance imaging in arteritic ischemic optic
Trang 9Man-neuropathy J Neuro-Ophthalmol 1999;19(4):
235–7.
188 Harada S, Mitsunobu F, Kodama F, et al Giant
cell arteritis associated with rheumatoid
arthri-tis monitored by magnetic resonance
angiogra-phy Intern Med 1999;38(8):675–8.
189 Mitomo T, Funyu T, Takahashi Y, Murakami K,
Koyama K, Kamio K Giant cell arteritis and
magnetic resonance angiography Arthritis
Rheum 1998;41(9):1702.
190 Stanson AW Imaging fi ndings in extracranial
(giant cell) temporal arteritis Clin Exp
Rheu-matol 2000;18(4 suppl 20):S43–8.
191 Zborowska B, Ell J, McGhee-Collett M, Scolyer
R, McCluskey PJ Progressive visual loss in a
patient with presumed temporal arteritis despite
treatment: how to make the diagnosis Clin Exp
Ophthalmol 2004;32(3):335–6.
192 Hayreh SS, Zimmerman B Visual deterioration
in giant cell arteritis patients while on high
doses of corticosteroid therapy Ophthalmology
2003;110(6):1204–15.
193 Hayreh SS, Zimmerman B Management of
giant cell arteritis Our 27-year clinical study:
new light on old controversies
Ophthalmolog-ica 2003;217(4):239–59.
194 Foroozan R, Deramo VA, Buono LM, et al
Recovery of visual function in patients with
biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis
Ophthalmol-ogy 2003;110(3):539–42.
195 Kim N, Trobe JD, Flint A, Keoleian G
Late ipsilateral recurrence of ischemic optic
neuropathy in giant cell arteritis J
Neuro-Ophthalmol 2003;23(2):122–6.
196 Hunder GG Giant cell arteritis and
polymyal-gia rheumatica Med Clin N Am 1997;81(1):
195–219.
197 Andersson R, Malmvall BE, Bengtsson BA
Long-term corticosteroid treatment in giant
cell arteritis Acta Med Scand 1986;220(5):
465–9.
198 Bengtsson BA, Malmvall BE Prognosis of giant
cell arteritis including temporal arteritis and
polymyalgia rheumatica A follow-up study on
ninety patients treated with corticosteroids
Acta Med Scand 1981;209(5):337–45.
199 Chan CC, Paine M, O’Day J Predictors of
recurrent ischemic optic neuropathy in giant
cell arteritis J Neuro-Ophthalmol 2005;25(1):
14–7.
200 Doury P, Pattin S, Eulry F, Thabaut A The use
of dapsone in the treatment of giant cell
arteri-tis and polymyalgia rheumatica Arthriarteri-tis
Rheum 1983;26(5):689–90.
201 Krall PL, Mazanec DJ, Wilke WS Methotrexate for corticosteroid-resistant polymyalgia rheu- matica and giant cell arteritis Cleve Clin J Med 1989;56(3):253–7.
202 Spiera RF, Kupersmith M, Paget S, Spiera H Vision loss in giant cell arteritis patients treated with alternate-day corticosteroids: comment on the article by Hoffman et al Arthritis Rheum 2003;48(4):1159–60.
203 Utsinger PD Treatment of steroid sive giant cell arteritis with Cytoxan Arthritis Rheum 1982;25(suppl):S31.
nonrespon-204 Hoffman GS, Cid MC, Hellmann DB, et al.; International Network for the Study of Systemic Vasculitides A multicenter, random- ized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of adjuvant methotrexate treatment for giant cell arteritis Arthritis Rheum 2002;46(5): 1309–18.
205 Jover JA, Hernandez-Garcia C, Morado IC, Vargas E, Banares A, Fernandez-Gutierrez B Combined treatment of giant-cell arteritis with methotrexate and prednisone A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial Ann Intern Med 2001;134(2):106–14.
206 Spiera RF, Mitnick HJ, Kupersmith M, et al A prospective, double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled trial of methotrexate in the treat- ment of giant cell arteritis (GCA) Clin Exp Rheumatol 2001;19(5):495–501.
207 De Silva M, Hazleman BL Azathioprine in giant cell arteritis/polymyalgia rheumatica:
a double-blind study Ann Rheum Dis 1986; 45(2):136–8.
208 Schaufelberger C, Andersson R, Nordborg E
No additive effect of cyclosporin A compared with glucocorticoid treatment alone in giant cell arteritis: results of an open, controlled, randomized study Br J Rheumatol 1998; 37(4):464–5.
209 Cantini F, Niccoli L, Salvarani C, Padula A, Olivieri I Treatment of longstanding active giant cell arteritis with infl iximab: report of four cases Arthritis Rheum 2001;44(12):2933–5.
210 Airo P, Antonioli CM, Vianelli M, Toniati P Anti-tumour necrosis factor treatment with inf- liximab in a case of giant cell arteritis resistant
to steroid and immunosuppressive drugs matology (Oxf) 2002;41(3):347–9.
Rheu-211 Andonopoulos AP, Meimaris N, Daoussis D, Bounas A, Giannopoulos G Experience with infl iximab (anti-TNF alpha monoclonal anti- body) as monotherapy for giant cell arteritis Ann Rheum Dis 2003;62(11):1116.
Trang 1060 J.W Chan
212 Uthman I, Kanj N, Atweh S Infl iximab as
monotherapy in giant cell arteritis Clin
Rheu-matol 2006;25(1):109–10.
213 Tan AL, Holdsworth J, Pease C, Emery P,
McG-onagle D Successful treatment of resistant
giant cell arteritis with etanercept Ann Rheum
Dis 2003;62(4):373–4.
214 Weyand CM, Kaiser M, Yang H, Younge B,
Goronzy JJ Therapeutic effects of
acetylsali-cylic acid in giant cell arteritis Arthritis Rheum
2002;46(2):457–66.
215 Ruegg S, Engelter S, Jeanneret C, et al Bilateral
vertebral artery occlusion resulting from giant
cell arteritis: report of 3 cases and review of the
literature Medicine (Baltim) 2003;82(1):1–12.
216 Nesher G, Berkun Y, Mates M, Baras M,
Rubinow A, Sonnenblick M Low-dose aspirin
and prevention of cranial ischemic
complica-tions in giant cell arteritis Arthritis Rheum
2004;50(4):1332–7.
217 Hayreh SS, Zimmerman B, Kardon RH Visual
improvement with corticosteroid therapy in
giant cell arteritis Report of a large study and
review of literature Acta Ophthalmol Scand
2002;80(4):355–67.
218 Font C, Cid MC, Coll-Vinent B, Lopez-Soto A,
Grau JM Clinical features in patients with
permanent visual loss due to biopsy-proven
giant cell arteritis Br J Rheumatol 1997;36(2):
251–4.
219 Schmidt D, Vaith P, Hetzel A Prevention of
serious ophthalmic and cerebral complications
in temporal arteritis? Clin Exp Rheumatol
2000;18(4 suppl 20):S61–3.
220 Gonzalez-Gay MA, Blanco R,
Rodriguez-Valverde V, et al Permanent visual loss and
cerebrovascular accidents in giant cell arteritis:
predictors and response to treatment Arthritis
Rheum 1998;41(8):1497–504.
221 Aiello PD, Trautmann JC, McPhee TJ,
Kunsel-man AR, Hunder GG Visual prognosis in giant
cell arteritis Ophthalmology 1993;100(4):
550–5.
222 Hsu CT, Kerrison JB, Miller NR, Goldberg MF
Choroidal infarction, anterior ischemic optic
neuropathy, and central retinal artery occlusion
from polyarteritis nodosa Retina 2001;21(4):
348–51.
223 Duran E, Merkel PA, Sweet S, Swan N, Babikian
VL ANCA-associated small vessel vasculitis
presenting with ischemic optic neuropathy
Neurology 2004;62(1):152–3.
224 Khurma V, Appen R, Wolf MD, Hansen KE
Wegener granulomatosis presenting as bilateral
loss of vision Clin Rheumatol 2005;11(5): 267–9.
225 Hayakawa K, Akatsuka I, Matsukura S, Kawai
K, Ohkuma H, Shimamura K Case of anterior ischemic optic neuropathy accompanied by Churg–Strauss syndrome Nippon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi 2004;108(10):612–7.
226 Khairallah M, Zaouali S, Ben Yahia S, et al Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy associated
with Rickettsia conorii infection J
Neuro-Oph-thalmol 2005;25(3):212–4.
227 Sadda SR, Nee M, Miller NR, Biousse V, Newman NJ, Kouzis A Clinical spectrum of posterior ischemic optic neuropathy Am J Ophthalmol 2001;132(5):743–50.
228 Buono LM, Foroozan R Perioperative rior ischemic optic neuropathy: review of the literature Surv Ophthalmol 2005;50(1):15–26.
poste-229 Saul GV, Sarkies NJC PION due to internal carotid artery occlusion Neuro-Ophthalmol- ogy 1987;7:349–53.
230 Tsai RK, Sun CY Spontaneous dissection of internal carotid artery presenting as isolated posterior ischaemic optic neuropathy Br J Ophthalmol 1997;81(6):513.
231 Hashimoto M, Ohtsuka K, Suzuki Y, Hoyt WF
A case of posterior ischemic optic neuropathy
in a posterior-draining dural cavernous sinus fi stula J Neuro-Ophthalmol 2005;25(3): 176–9.
232 Kothe AC, Flanagan J, Trevino RC True rior ischemic optic neuropathy associated with herpes zoster ophthalmicus Optom Vis Sci 1990;67(11):845–9.
poste-233 Weinstein JM, Morris GL, ZuRhein GM, Gentry
LR Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy
due to Aspergillus fumigatus J Clin
Neuro-Ophthalmol 1989;9(1):7–13.
234 Lee AG, Brazis PW, Miller NR Posterior emic optic neuropathy associated with migraine Headache 1996;36(8):506–10.
isch-235 Claes C, Milea D, Bodaghi B, Tran TH, LeHoang
P, Blanc R Acute retrobulbar optic neuropathy due to rupture of an anterior communicating artery aneurysm Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2006; 84(1):145–6.
236 Hara N, Mukuno K, Ohtaka H, Shimizu K Ischemic optic neuropathy associated with subarachnoid hemorrhage after rupture Ophthalmologica 2003;217(1):79–84.
237 Perlman JI, Forman S, Gonzalez ER bar ischemic optic neuropathy associated with sickle cell disease J Neuro-Ophthalmol 1994; 14(1):45–8.
Trang 11Retrobul-238 Balm AJ, Brown DH, De Vries WA, Snow GB
Blindness: a potential complication of bilateral
neck dissection J Laryngol Otol 1990;104(2):
154–6.
239 Chang SH, Miller NR The incidence of vision
loss due to perioperative ischemic optic
neu-ropathy associated with spine surgery: the Johns
Hopkins Hospital Experience Spine 2005;
30(11):1299–302.
240 Maran AG, Amin M, Wilson JA Radical neck
dissection: a 19-year experience J Laryngol
Otol 1989;103(8):760–4.
241 Nuttall GA, Garrity JA, Dearani JA, Abel MD,
Schroeder DR, Mullany CJ Risk factors for
ischemic optic neuropathy after
cardiopulmo-nary bypass: a matched case/control study
Anesth Analg 2001;93(6):1410–6.
242 Stevens WR, Glazer PA, Kelley SD, Lietman
TM, Bradford DS Ophthalmic complications
after spinal surgery Spine 1997;22(12):1319–
24.
243 Sweeney PJ, Breuer AC, Selhorst JB, et al
Ischemic optic neuropathy: a complication of
cardiopulmonary bypass surgery Neurology
1982;32(5):560–2.
244 Cheng MA, Sigurdson W, Tempelhoff R,
Lau-ryssen C Visual loss after spine surgery: a
survey Neurosurgery 2000;46(3):625–30.
245 Purvin V, Kuzma B Intraorbital optic nerve
signal hyperintensity on magnetic resonance
imaging sequences in perioperative
hypoten-sive ischemic optic neuropathy J
Neuro-Ophthalmol 2005;25(3):202–4.
246 Vaphiades MS Optic nerve enhancement in
hypotensive ischemic optic neuropathy J
Neuro-Ophthalmol 2004;24(3):235–6.
247 Johnson MW, Kincaid MC, Trobe JD Bilateral
retrobulbar optic nerve infarctions after blood
loss and hypotension A clinicopathologic case study Ophthalmology 1987;94(12):1577–84.
248 Nawa Y, Jaques JD, Miller NR, Palermo RA, Green WR Bilateral posterior optic neuropa- thy after bilateral radical neck dissection and hypotension Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthal- mol 1992;230(4):301–8.
249 Schobel GA, Schmidbauer M, Millesi W, Undt
G Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy ing bilateral radical neck dissection Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1995;24(4):283–7.
follow-250 Dzau VJ Tissue angiotensin and pathobiology
of vascular disease: a unifying hypothesis Hypertension 2001;37:1047–52.
251 McAuley DF, McGurk C, Nugent AG, et al Vasoconstriction to endothelin-1 is blunted
in non-insulin-dependent diabetes: a response study Clin Sci (Lond) 2000;99:175–9.
dose-252 Hayreh SS Ischaemic optic neuropathy Indian
J Ophthalmol 2000 48(3):171–94.
253 Practice Guidelines for blood component therapy: a report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Blood Com- ponent Therapy Anesthesiology 1996;84(3): 732–47.
254 Kirkali P, Kansu T A case of unilateral posterior ischemic optic neuropathy after radical neck dissection Ann Ophthalmol 1990;22(8):297–8.
255 Marks SC, Jaques DA, Hirata RM, Saunders JR
Jr Blindness following bilateral radical neck dissection Head Neck 1990;12(4):342–5.
256 Milner GA A case of blindness after bilateral neck dissection J Laryngol Otol 1960;74: 880–5.
257 Pazos GA, Leonard DW, Blice J, Thompson
DH Blindness after bilateral neck dissection: case report and review Am J Otolaryngol 1999;20(5):340–5.
Trang 123
Papilledema
Jane W Chan
Papilledema is clinically defi ned as optic disc
swelling resulting only from increased
intracra-nial pressure (ICP), as opposed to the optic disc
swelling from other etiologies, such as ischemia
or infl ammation (Table 3.1) Cerebrospinal
fl uid pressure (CSF) equal to or greater than
250 mmH2O taken in a person lying in the
lateral recumbent position is considered
abnor-mally elevated Normal CSF pressure is usually
in the range of 100 mmH2O to 250 mmH2O.1
Symptoms of Papilledema
One of the most common symptoms of increased
ICP is headache.3 It is usually a dull, pulsatile,
occipital or generalized headache It can occur
daily and last for hours The headache is not
related to the ICP changes or other associated
symptoms It may be worsened with Valsalva
maneuvers, such as coughing or straining It is
usually associated with neck stiffness, nausea,
and vomiting Occasionally, retrobulbar pain
may occur with eye movement Pain may even
radiate to facial dermatomes.3
Transient visual obscurations may involve
blurry vision to complete loss of vision and are
thought to be related to transient ischemia of
the optic nerve.4 Acute episodes of blurry vision
are the most common and usually last less than
30 s and rarely several hours.5 They may be
monocular or binocular and are not related to
the degree of intracranial pressure or to the
severity of papilledema These visual symptoms
are precipitated by postural changes.5 Positive
visual phenomena, such as photopsias and phosphenes, are also transient and are thought
to be related to traction of the retrobulbar optic nerve or retina.6
Pulsatile tinnitus is often unilateral and is eliminated temporarily by compression of the ispilateral jugular vein and by lowering CSF pressure by a lumbar puncture (LP) High-pressure vascular pulsations are thought to be transmitted by CSF to the venous sinus walls to cause this tinnitus.6
Signs of PapilledemaThe key feature of increased ICP is papilledema and may be classifi ed into the following four different stages: (1) early, (2) fully developed, (3) chronic, and (4) atrophic.7
A very early sign of papilledema is emia, dilatation of capillaries on the disc surface The retinal nerve fi ber layer also loses its super-
hyper-fi cial curvilinear light refl exes to become more red The optic disc usually is swollen, initially in the inferior pole, then at the superior pole, fol-lowed by the temporal and nasal aspects, respec-tively (Figure 3.1).8 Because of the disc swelling, the optic disc margins become blurred Rupture
of a distended capillary within or surrounding the disc may also cause peripapillary nerve
fi ber layer hemorrhages These fl ame-shaped hemorrhages appear as thin streaks of blood on
or near the margins of the optic disc Because
of the elevated intracranial pressure, ous retinal venous pulsations are absent CSF
Trang 13spontane-pressures of 200 mmH2O or greater may even
inhibit these pulsations As 20% of persons with
normal CSF pressure have spontaneous venous
pulsations, the observation of spontaneous
venous pulsations only indicates that the CSF
pressure is below 200 mmH2O at that time and
is not always a reliable sign of papilledema.7
In more fully developed papilledema,
periph-eral retinal veins become engorged and dark
Closer to the disc, splinter hemorrhages may be
seen as edema in the retinal nerve fi ber layer
increases at or adjacent to the disc margin
More fl ame-shaped hemorrhages may appear
Table 3.1 The differential diagnosis of the swollen
disc (adapted from Miller and Newman 2 )
Not true disc swelling: congenitally anomalous, elevated
optic disc
• With and without buried drusen
• Tilted optic disc
• Hypoplastic optic disc
True disc swelling
• Elevated intracranial pressure: secondary to mass
lesion, cerebral venous thrombosis, or idiopathic
(pseudotumor cerebri)
• Infl ammatory: infections, demyelination, sarcoidosis
• Vascular: anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, central
retinal vein occlusion
• Compressive: secondary to neoplasms (meningioma) or
thyroid ophthalmopathy
• Infi ltrative: secondary to neoplasms (leukemia) or
sarcoidosis
• Toxic/metabolic/nutritional defi ciency
• Hereditary: Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy
• Traumatic optic neuropathy
Figure 3.1 Early stages of papilledema Early nerve fi ber layer edema is fi rst seen superiorly (left), then inferiorly and nasally (right) (Reprinted from Spalton et al.,8 with permission from Elsevier.)
as a result of sudden rises of CSF pressure The surface of the disc then becomes elevated above the retinal surface, and microaneurysms and dilated capillaries appear The peripapillary surface blood vessels become obscured by more edema in the retinal nerve fi ber layer Focal retinal infarcts, or cotton wool spots and tortu-ous vessels, appear (Figure 3.2).7,8
In severely elevated ICP, circumferential choroidal folds, or Paton’s lines, may develop Choroidal folds may even be the initial present-ing sign of increased ICP, according to a study
by Griebel and Kosmorsky.9 Ten of 12 patients had ICPs of greater than 120 mmH2O, and 8 of
12 were diagnosed with idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) Four patients had increased ICP and choroidal folds in the absence of pap-illedema It was hypothesized that the choroidal folds might represent enlargement of the retro-laminar optic nerve sheath in the absence of axonal swelling Alternatively, it was proposed that the choroidal folds might persist after reso-lution of papilledema The presence of choroi-dal folds in isolation might be related to the timing of the evaluation
Hard exudates and hemorrhages may occur
in the peripapillary region and in the macula
to cause decreased central vision Development
of macular edema may be a risk factor for manent visual loss in IIH In a study by Talks et al.,10 44% (21 of 48) of eyes in 24 patients who had progressive visual deteriora-tion from IIH requiring optic nerve sheath fen-estration developed macular changes, including choroidal folds, Paton’s lines, nerve fi ber layer hemorrhages, subretinal hemorrhages, macular
Trang 14per-64 J.W Chan
stars, macular edema, and retinal pigment
epi-thelial changes These changes probably
con-tributed to the severe visual loss in 5 eyes, 3 of
which did not improve despite treatment It was
concluded that these macular changes might
not have had a signifi cant impact on optic
nerve-related visual loss in patients with IIH,
but the patients who developed macular edema
might be at greater risk for permanent visual
loss
If ICP increases abruptly, severe subhyaloid
hemorrhages may occur and occasionally bleed
and dissect into the vitreous in about 4% of
patients with papilledema.11 These intraretinal
hemorrhages are often the result of
compres-sion of the central retinal vein from the swollen optic disc and usually resolve with treatment of elevated ICP.12
In chronic papilledema, hemorrhages and exudates slowly resolve, and the optic disc cup
is gradually destroyed (Figure 3.3).8 The disc may have hard exudates mimicking disc drusen,
a sign that the papilledema has been present for several months Nerve fi ber layer atrophy may also appear as slitlike defects on red-free direct ophthalmoscopy.13 Chronic papilledema may even persist for many years without sig-nifi cant visual symptoms, especially in patients with pseudotumor cerebri or with intracranial tumors.14
Figure 3.3 Chronic papilledema Both optic discs
(left and right) are swollen with no hemorrhages or
cotton wool spots, indicative of a slow, gradual
increase in cerebrospinal fl uid (CSF) pressure (Reprinted from Spalton et al., 8 with permission from Elsevier.)
Figure 3.2 Later stages of papilledema Venous
engorgement increases as further disc swelling
extends temporally (left) Hemorrhages and cotton
wool spots also develop (right) (Reprinted from
Spalton et al., 8 with permission from Elsevier.)