Machinability and Surface Integrity Part 11 ppt

The influence of the cutting edge’s condition on the resultant machined surface integrity... The thickness of these ‘white-layer’ zones is strongly influenced by both the actual plastic

Figure 189 The influence of the cutting edge’s condition on the resultant machined surface integrity

.

In Fig 189c, a ‘white-layer’ (i.e for this ferrous

drilled part, being a localised untempered martensitic

phase of 63 HRc ) exists beneath the recast and

rede-posited layer, in this case produced by a ‘dull’ drill’s

cutting lips and margins Due to the fact that the recast

layer (i.e heat-affected zone – HAZ) has a similar

met-allurgy to that of the ‘white-layer’ , with the delineation

of these ‘white-layers’ regions and their

accompany-ing HAZ’s are not clearly defined This latter HAZ is a

complex metallurgical condition, comprising of some:

untempered martensite (UTM); over-tempered

mar-tensite (OTM), while beneath these layers, the bulk

substrate material remains unaffected The thickness

of these ‘white-layer’ zones is strongly influenced by

both the actual plastic deformation created here and,

to a lesser degree, by the thermal influence of the

pas-sage of the tool’s edge over the machined surface as

heat penetrates into the locality of the component’s

surface Probably the worst ‘abusive machining’

condi-tions that can exist, are when drilling holes in

work-hardening materials having long length-to-diameter

ratios (i.e L/D ratios of >12:1) with inadequate

cool-ant supply, creating high levels of friction, this

condi-tion being exacerbated by an inefficiency produced by

a ‘dulled’ drill’s cutting lips

Virtually all tooling even the most sharp – the

no-table exception here being monolithic faceted

natu-ral diamond cutting edges, have a finite tip radius of

≈8 µm (i.e see Fig 184 – high-lighting the tool tip

‘rounding effect‘), this results in increased forces and

tool wear, which can transform the surface metallurgy

by thermo-mechanical generation The case has

al-ready been made concerning the fact that machining

processes impart residual stresses into the surface

lay-ers, as indicated in the schematically-represented

mill-ing conditions shown in Fig 190 and graphically, in

Fig 191 for a series of milling operations where preset

‘wear lands’ were generated on the cutter’s teeth prior

to workpiece machining This latter case (Fig 191) of

artificially-inducing a controlled ‘wear land’ onto the

face-milling cutter’s individual tooth (i.e with the other

teeth removed, hence, acting as ‘Fly-cutter‘), then after

 By way of comparison of this untempered martensitic

‘white-layer’ phase, a conventional high-speed steel (HSS) milling

cutter’s teeth would have had a maximum hardness after

heat-treatment of 62 HRc, which clearly signifies the true local

hard-ness of these ‘white-layers’.

several milling passes plotting the residual stress levels from the surface and into the 4340 steel workpiece’s substrate under standardised cutting data (i.e the steel specimens having previously been quenched and tem-pered to a bulk hardness of 52 HRc) Hence, the effect

of these different induced tool wear rates and their influence in terms of their respective magnitudes and depths, can clearly be seen Even when the cutting edge has ‘sharp tooth’ , a certain degree of tensile residual stress was apparent in the immediate surface region Here, directly under this tensile stress zone, the stress concentration changed to one of compression (i.e to

a depth of ≈50 µm) As each milling cutter tooth flank became steadily more worn, the substrate compression layer also increased in magnitude, which could lead to considerable workpiece distortion, once the clamping forces had been released – particularly if only one-side

of the part was milled (i.e see Fig 186b)

If the forces involved in the machining process ex-ceed the flow stress, plastic deformation occurs and the structure is deformed In the case o ductile materi-als, the plastic flow can create a range of degenerative surface topography characteristics, such as: burrs; laps; BUE residue; plus other unwanted debris deposits If this deformation becomes severe as a result of exces-sive plastic flow, any grains adjacent to the surface may become fragmented to such an extent that little,

or no metallic structure can be metallographically re-solved, therefore ‘white-layering’ will result Normally,

a ‘white-layer’ region extends to quite a small depth beneath the surface, in the region of 10 to 100 µm, de-pending upon the severity of the ‘abusive regime’ of surface generation Considering Fig 191 once again,

as can be seen, the residual stress is indicated along the vertical axis, here instead, it is alternatively possible

to superimpose a micro-hardness axis – see Fig 191 circular inset graph A note of care is required when changing the vertical axis from residual stress to that

of micro-hardness, as they are two distinct quantita-tive values As mentioned the hardness profile closely approximates that of the residual stress curve, however

in the latter case, instead of tensile stress at the in the surface region, the sub-surface layer could equally be compressive in nature

‘White-layers’ must be avoided under all occasions, because of the unstable metallurgical condition, com-pounded by the fact that the these regions act as po-tential stress-raisers for any critically-engineered com-ponent and can lead to premature failure, or at worse, catastrophic failure in-service

Figure 190 Typical fatigue characteristics within the component’s surface region, being influenced by the mode of

milling: up-cut or down-cut

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Figure 191 Comparison of the residual stresses in some milled surfaces, obtained with

artificially-induced tooth wear lands [After: Field & Kahles, 1971]

.

Altered Material Layers

So that an impression of the altered material layers

(AMLs) that can occur for a diverse range of: surface

and sub-surface topographical features; different

met-allurgical processes; mechanical applications and uses;

Table 13 has been constructed, to high-light their

par-ticular influence on functional performance In the

majority of cases given in Table 13, the influence of

these sub-surface defects tends to be of significance, especially with respect to an ‘abusive regime’

produc-ing a machined ‘white-layer’ In some instances, the ‘al-tered material zone’ (AMZ), can affect component

in-service performance in a variety of ways For example, where thein-service tribological situations produce ei-ther re-deposited, or recast layers in the surface region,

it has been known that such defects will influence wear and affect reliability This often undetected sub-surface

Table 13 The influence of substrate features on function

Surface integrity: sub-surface features

UTM

or

WL

OTM rev Aust IGA WL Plastic defn Burrs Cracks Tears and

laps

Tool frags Redp matl Res stress

Chemical

attack

Bonding and

adhesion

Key: : strong influence on function; : some influence on function; : possible influence on function

Abbreviations: UTM: untempered martensite; OTM: over-tempered martensite; Aust rev: austenitic reversion; IGA: intergranular attack; WL:

white-layer; Plast defn: plastic deformation; Tool frags: tool fragments; Redp matl: re-deposited material; Res stress: residual stress.

[After: Griffiths et al., 2001]

.

condition degrades the functional performance, due

to the fact that they are the product of hard, brittle and

unstable layers, with tensile residual stresses present

These factors, combined with an acute alteration to the

bulk substrate, are likely to ‘spall’ (i.e delaminate and

break-away) Conversely, if a sub-surface feature

pro-duces severe plastic deformation, evidence has shown

in particular for the die and tool industry, that some

dies benefit from increased life due to enhanced

abra-sion resistance

From Table 13, the design engineer can see that by

simply selecting a production process without an

inti-mate knowledge of how components are to be

manu-factured will inevitably affect the subsequent part’s

in-service application Moreover, due regard must be

given to the machined workpiece’s potential

sub-sur-face state, as this condition will inexorably lead to

problems in terms of potential impairment of its

ser-vicing needs and reliability

Surface integrity Manipulation – Burnishing

Part’s for Surface Improvement

Burnishing and in particular roller burnishing (Fig

192) is a very fast production technique for improving

both the finish and dimensional accuracy of either an

internal, or external surface, by pressure rolling

with-out removal of workpiece material Roller burnishing

is a cold-working process, that produces a fine surface

texture by the application of the planetary rotation of

hardened rolls over the previously machined bored, or

turned surface (Fig 192c) Moreover, unlike the

pri-mary forming process of cold-rolling which normally

produces large sectional changes, roller burnishing

involves cold-working just the surface layers of the

workpiece, to improve the surface structure.

Roller burnishing tooling (Fig.192a) can be used

for minute diameter adjustment down to 25 µm,

allow-ing component dimensional accuracies of ±0.006 mm

to be obtained The action of roller burnishing causes

plastic deformation of the workpiece’s previously

ma-chined surface At a given depth below the burnished

surface, the material is elastically deformed and

at-tempts to spring back This action, gives rise to

com-pressive stresses at the surface and tensile stresses in

the elastically-deformed zone This complex stress

interaction increases the resistance of the material to

fatigue failure, because any external forces must firstly

overcome these residual stresses

The potential for cracking that can occur due to the interaction between the static and tensile stresses

in the metal and a corrosive medium is termed ‘stress corrosion cracking’ During roller burnishing, these

tensile stresses are eliminated when the burnising tool compresses the workpiece surface Likewise, any pits, scratches and porosities in the surface, which might otherwise collect reactive substances and con-taminants, are eliminated, hence, roller burnishing in-creases the corrosion resistance of the material Crystalline materials typified by their metal lattices, are never completely without flaws The atomic lattice will always contain built-in irregularities of various

types These so-called atomic dislocations reduce the

strength of the material, as less force is necessary to alter the atomic lattice Dislocation motion of atoms

is a complex subject, which goes beyond the scope of the present text, however, it can be said that upon the application of an external load (i.e burnishing tool-ing), because the lattice is invariably not perfect, less force is necessary to defrom the structure Here, an at-tempt is made to inhibit the movement of dislocations

by means of differing hardening procedures Cold-working increases the number of dislocations and one would expect the material to become softer, but in fact, the opposite effect transpires This increased hardness takes place, because there are so many dislocations as

a result of cold-working, that they prevent and restrict each other’s motion, as a result the surface hardens This is what occurs in roller burnishing, as the material

is displaced and the net result is that it becomes both harder and stronger – due to dislocation obstructions

By way of a cautionary note, both Rockwell and Brinell hardness testing methods cannot realistically obtain surface hardnesses readings satisfactorily,

therefore it is recommended that the Knoop test (Fig 192b) should be used, then converted with a suitable

‘hardness comparison chart’ – see the appropriate table

in Appendix 12

This completes a brief synopsis of a discussion on certain aspects of both machinability and surface in-tegrity, which hopefully conveys the importance of the machining activities and the resulting machined sur-face condition Considerably more space could have been devoted to a comprehensive review of these top-ics, but space was limited, this is the reason for a rea-sonably comprehensive list of references – for a more in-depth discriminating reading on these important machining and related issues

Figure 192 Roller burnishing improves the metallurgical properties of the previously machined surface [Courtesy of

Sand-vik Coromant]

.

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