Guide to Grammar and Usage 3 7 3 Nominative Pronoun as it we they who whoever Subject Objective Pronoun as it us them whom whomever Objective Possessive Ownership its our, ours thei
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Nominative (Pronoun as
it
we they who whoever
Subject)
Objective (Pronoun as
it
us them whom whomever
Objective)
Possessive (Ownership)
its our, ours their, theirs whose whoever
Clauses
Clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a verb
• Independent clauses are complete sentences
• Dependent clauses are fragments They cannot stand alone; they can only be part
of a sentence
Clichés
Clichés are descriptive phrases that have lost their effectiveness through overuse
Examples: sweet as sugar, tried and true, raining cats and dogs slow but sure
Replace clichés with fresh, new descriptions
Colons
See Punctuation
Commas
See Punctuation
Comparative Adjectives and Adverbs
Follow these rules to make correct comparisons with adjectives and adverbs
• Use the comparative degree (-er or more form) to compare two things
• Use the superlative form (-est or most form) to compare more than two things
• Never use -er and more or -est and most together
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Review the following
Part of Speech
adjective adverb adjective adverb
chart
Positive
wide widely faithful faithfully
Comparative
wider more widely more faithful more faithfully
Good and bad do not follow these guidelines They have
Part of Speech
adjective adverb adjective adverb
Positive
good well bad badly
Comparative
better better worse worse
Superlative
widest most widely most faithful most faithfully
irregular forms
Superlative
best best worst worst
Conjunctions
Conjunctions connect words or groups of words
Examples: and, but, or for, because, although
Contractions
Contractions are two words combined When you contract words, add an apostrophe
in the space where the letters have been taken out
Examples:
• does + not = doesn't
• we + re = we're
• I + will = I'll
Don't confuse contractions with possessive pronouns Study this chart
Contraction Possessive Pronoun
it's (it is)
you're (you are)
they're (they are)
who's (who is)
its your their whose
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D
Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that describes something that has been left out of the sentence
• Dangling: Making startling new discoveries in science, the Renaissance was a
time or rebirth
• Correct: The Renaissance was a time of rebirth when people made startling new
discoveries in science
Diction
Diction is a writer's choice of words Be sure you select words that are suitable for your audience, purpose, and tone Depending on your audience, you can use words that are formal or words that are informal Informal language includes slang This level of diction is not suitable for formal discourse
Be sure to avoid sexist language This is language that assigns qualities to people on the basis of their gender This language discriminates against people by limiting what they can do Here are some guidelines:
• Avoid using he to refer to both men and women
Sexist: He is a good writer so he knows how to select suitable words
Okay: Good writers know how to select suitable words
• Avoid using man to refer to men and women
Sexist: Man is a social creature
Okay: People are social creatures
• Avoid language that denigrates people
Sexist: lady lawyer, male nurse
Okay: lawyer, nurse
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Double Negatives
Use only one negative word to express a negative idea Here are the most frequently used negative words:
-n't no not only
neither no one nothing scarcely never nobody nowhere
Exclamation Marks
See Punctuation
F
fragments
A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought Most times, a fragment is missing a subject, a verb, or both Other times, a fragment may have a subject and a verb but still not express a complete thought
Example: The writer gone to the office
The verb is not complete The sentence should read:
The writer has gone to the office
You can correct a fragment two ways:
• Add the missing part to the sentence
Fragment: In the cabinet over the bookshelf
Complete: I keep the aspirin in the cabinet over the bookshelf
• Omit the subordinating conjunction or connect it to another sentence
Fragment: When you go to the convention
Complete: When you go to the convention, be sure to wear comfortable shoes
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l
Interjections
Interjections show strong emotion Often, interjections are set off with an exclamation mark
Examples: Oh!, Wow!, Look out!
M
Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier is a describing word that is placed too far away from the noun
or the pronoun that it is describing As a result, the sentence does not convey its meaning It may also produce confusion or amusement To convey the error, move the modifier as close as possible to the word or phrase it is describing
Example: The writer read from his new book wearing glasses
The modifier wearing glasses is in the wrong place The sentence states that the book,
not the writer, was wearing glasses Move the modifier so that the sentence reads:
The writer wearing glasses read from his new book
N
Nonstandard English
Nonstandard English are words and phrases that are not considered correct usage Here is a list of words and phrases to avoid in writing and speech
Nonstandard English Standard Written English
irregardless regardless
kind of a kind of
off of off
being that because
had ought ought
this here this
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continued
Nonstandard English
hisself
the reason is because
like I told you
that there
Standard Written English
himself the reason is that
as I told you that
Nouns
A noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing Nouns come in different varieties
• Common nouns name a type of person, place, or thing
Examples: boy, city, food
• Proper nouns name a specific person, place, or thing
Examples: Harris, Pensacola, Rice-a-Roni
• Compound nouns are two or more nouns that function as a single unit A com-pound noun can be two individual words, words joined by a hyphen, or two words combined
Examples:
Individual words: time capsule
Hyphenated words: step-brother
Combined words: sunshine
P
Parts of Speech
English words are divided into eight different parts of speech according to their function
in a sentence See Adjectives, Adverbs, Conjunctions, Interjections, Nouns,
Prepositions, Pronouns, and Verbs for a description of each kind
Periods
See Punctuation
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Phrases
Phrases are groups of words that function in a sentence as one part of speech Phrases
do not have subjects or verbs
Examples: by the lake, near the closet, with them, a large publishing house
Plural Nouns
Plural nouns name more than one person, place, or thing Follow these guidelines to form the plural of nouns:
• Add s to form the plural of most nouns
Singular
bird hat
Plural
birds hats
• Add es if the noun ends in s, sh, ch, or x
Singular
class inch box
• If the noun ends
Singular
city lady
• If the noun ends
Singular
essay monkey
• If the noun ends
Singular
Plural
classes inches boxes
in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to / and add es
Plural
cities ladies
in y preceded by a vowel, add s
Plural
essays monkeys
on o preceded by a vowel, add s
Plural
radio radios ratio ratios
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• If the noun ends in o preceded by a consonant, the noun can takes es, s, or either s
or es
Singular Plural
Takes es
potato potatoes hero heroes
Takes s
silo silos solo solos
Either
zero zeros, zeroes tornado tornados, tornadoes
• Add s to most nouns ending i n /
Singular Plural
brief briefs chief chiefs
Exceptions: Change t h e / o r fe to v and add es
Singular
self wolf leaf knife life wife half thief
Plural
selves wolves leaves knives lives wives halves thieves
• In compound words, make the main word plural
Singular Plural
sister-in-law sisters-in-law mother-in-law mothers-in-law
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• Some nouns change their spelling when they become plural
Singular Plural
child children man men foot feet tooth teeth louse lice mouse mice
• Some nouns have the same form whether they are singular or plural
Singular Plural
swine swine series series deer deer sheep sheep moose moose species species
Possession
Possession shows ownership Follow these rules to create possessive nouns
• With singular nouns, add an apostrophe and s
Examples: girl, girl's manuscript; student, student's ideas
• With plural nouns ending in s, add an apostrophe after the s
Examples: girls, girls' manuscript; students, students' ideas
• With plural nouns not ending in s, add an apostrophe and s
Examples: women, women's books; mice, mice's tails
Prepositions
Prepositions are words that link a noun or a pronoun follow it to another word in the sentence
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Here are some of the most common prepositions:
about
above
across
after
against
along
amid
around
as
at
before
behind
below beneath beside between beyond but
by despite down during except for
from
in inside into like near
of off
on onto opposite out
A prepositional phrase is a preposition and its object
Examples: on the wing, in the door
Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement
See Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent
Pronouns
Pronouns are words used in place of a noun or another pronoun
• Personal pronouns refer to a specific person, place, object, or thing
First person Second person
Third person
Singular
I, me, mine, my you, your, yours
Singular
he, him, his she, her, hers, it
Plural
we, us, our, ours you, your, yours
Plural
they, them, their theirs, its
• Possessive pronouns show ownership
Examples: yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, whose
outside over past since through toward under underneath until upon with within