In this exploratory investigation we present the analysis of creative team strategies of remote sketching used during the meetings of three design teams while interacting with a clien
Trang 2Visual Representation in Design
Creative Collaborative Strategies of Remote Sketching on Design
Luz-Maria Jimenez-Narvaez and Arturo Segrera
Creation of New Fashion Illustration Painting Techniques by Use of India-ink Painting Techniques: Research into Line Drawing Techniques of Expression in Fashion Illustrations
Sachiko Nagasawa, Shin’ya Nagasawa and Kazunari Morimoto
How Uncertainty Helps Sketch Interpretation in a Design Task
Winger S.W Tseng and Linden J Ball
The Complementary Role of Representations in Design Creativity: Sketches and Models
Alejandro Acuna and Ricardo Sosa
Trang 3Creative Collaborative Strategies of Remote Sketching on Design
Luz-Maria Jimenez-Narvaez1,2 and Arturo Segrera3
1 National University of Colombia, Canada
2 MATI-Montréal, Canada
3 Industrial Design School of Montreal University, Canada
Abstract In this exploratory investigation we present the
analysis of creative team strategies of remote sketching used
during the meetings of three design teams while interacting
with a client that had requested their services for the design
of the graphic image of a research laboratory During the
experiment, the groupware softwares for synchronous work,
Skype and Vyew, were used The teams make the selection
of the ideas, once these are drafted, in a verbal way This
process involves work cycles in which the nominal work
requires verbal communication for the group idea selection;
as for the simultaneous work, the audio conference needs to
withstand the whole process of group idea formation
Without the synchronous verbal communication, the
exchange or the selection of ideas, which will lead to the
formation of group ideas, would not be possible
Keywords: creative team strategies, remote sketching, team
idea production, remote layout drawing, collaborative design
work
1 Introduction
1.1 Analysis of the Generation of Ideas in a Team
The generation of ideas is “the ability of the individual
to produce ideas expressed in language or other media
is an important human characteristic” (Carroll, 1993,
p 394) The quantitative factors of this ability can be
summed up in factors such as: “fluidity” and
“creativity” (Idem) For Caroll, the term “idea” has a
more broad meaning: “an idea can be expressed in a
word, a phrase, a sentence, or indeed any verbal
proposition, but it may be something expressed in a
gesture, a figure, a drawing, or a particular action”
(Idem) A creative idea differentiates itself from other
expressions because it is neither a process of
acknowledgement nor a descriptive process, but
manifests itself as a solution to a problem
According to Schneiderman (2000) the creative process of a team is completed when there exists the construction of novel knowledge based on the prior knowledge of the participants The work of a team would involve communication as the principle medium towards social refinement and the dissemination of ideas The creativity process of a group has not been described in depth (Paulus and Nijstad, 2003; Taggar, 2002) since the great majority of studies has focused
on the individual creativity and the incentives of personal strategies: “your (personal) creative power” (Osborn 1948; and specially Osborn, 1974, p 66)
In design, the Goldschmidt (1995) study evaluated through means of a protocol of parameters of productivity, the individual and group performance during the conception stage of a racing bike This study demonstrated that the creative work of a group is not necessarily superior to the one of an individual in terms of creative productivity (Lamm and Trommsdorff, 1973) The main difference concerns the reduced time needed to execute complex tasks in which there is no competence between one of the participants In any case, the group creativity can be described as the sum of individual processes or the result of the social interaction amongst the participants In general, the teams meet and interact informally during the process of the ideas production and in this process there exists a kind of auto-organized synergy that allows the participants to design as a team
1.2 Sketching in a Team
Arheim (1993) defines two types of visual representations: the mental images produced by memory and those that are generated by abstraction In team design, the exchanges performed by graphic
Trang 4242 L.M Jimenez-Narvaez and A Segrera
representations will be done by means of comparison
within the group of layout drawings1, the abstract
representations and through the images (photos,
illustrations, realistic renderings or views of existing
objects) These graphic representations turn into a
visual language that allows a dynamic collaborative
communication
In this article, we will consider the layout draft as a
graphic language for the exchange of ideas within the
process of group idea conception This language
allows for the adequate tackling and resolution of any
design problems The proposal of sketching as a
language of ideas production is analysed by
Goldschmidt (1991) starting from verbal protocols
carried out by means of observation during the
execution of sketches With this as a starting point,
Goldschmidt deduced that the utilization of sketches is
an operation of “interactive imagery” (p.131) that
generates an internal and an external dialogue of
production and evaluation of ideas The drafts are not
pre-established images, but they rather develop
“within a context of explanation” (Idem) In addition,
the sketch facilitates the explanation of the
composition of the object and the interrelation between
the parts and its context
The sketching reflects a process of refinement of
the ideas, in the sense that the first ideas of the group
will be “tentative, generic, and vague” Subsequently,
the sketch becomes specific in a context like Arnheim
saids “rather it has the positive quality of a topological
shape As distinguished from geometrical shapes, a
topological shape stands for a whole range of
possibilities without being tangible committed to
anyone of them Being undefined in its specifics, it
admits distortions and deviations Its pregnancy
designer requires in the search for a final shape”
(p.71)
On this point, Pucell and Gero (1998) emphasize
the multidisciplinary use of sketching in all of the
phases of a product conception These authors affirm
the variation of the type of the layout draft produced,
depending on how advanced the stage of the project is
This way, in the first phases of the definition of a
product, the sketches will be vague and undefined
However, once the project is better defined, the
1 A layout drawing corresponds to: “The first step in transition from
idea to item is design Here the engineer (designer) takes the
pencilled notes, the scribbles on backs of envelopes, the brainstorm
ideas, the design sketches on cafeteria napkins, and weaves them
into the first designs of the new device Design begins when the
designer makes the first lines that begin to skeletonise the device”
(Bronikowski, 1986, p 387 in Termiun Plus, 2010)
industrial drawings, the realistic rendering and the construction plans will be used Pucell and Gero suggest that sketching has three concrete functions in the process of problem resolution Sketches perform an interrelation process amongst: “1) short term memory, 2) imagery reinterpretation and 3) mental synthesis” (Ibid) Likewise, Van der Lugt (2005) shows that sketches allow to: 1) support a new cycle of interpretation of the thought, 2) to uphold the reinterpretation of the ideas in group work and 3) improve access to ideas on an earlier stage
Inside the process of the ideation stage and the evolution of the design project (Eastman, 1999), the drawing is accompanied by a description paper with the technical characteristics of the product, whether structural or abstract, such as the mechanical structure,
of the “cinematic representations, the systematic force analysis, the structural resistance or the means of assembly” (Shah al., 2001, p 169) of the products Presently, there is an ongoing debate on the role of sketching in the process of the conception of ideas in design Gero, Pucell and Bilda (2006, also see: Gero and Bilda, 2008) propose a new perspective onto the idea production in design, that designers can design without drawing; however, in our article our aim is to understand how teams that work from a distance, share their ideas through the use of remote sketching Subsequently, we will discuss in more detail our considerations on remote collaborative working
1.3 Sketching in a Team
There are many reasons to evaluate the importance of remote sketching, principally, those related to new working conditions: the delocalization of teams, the interaction with external experts, as well as the other players in the design process: users, providers, to name
a few The evolution of computer technology and communications –ICT allows for a more dynamic exchange of information between all agents involved
in the execution of complex projects Ozkaya and Akin (2005, p.5) explain that “collaborative design implies the collaboration of distinct individuals with different areas of expertise or knowledge to work towards the accomplishment of common goals, simultaneously or chronologically, and co-locationally or remotely”
An extensive part of development in the area of remote creative collaboration, has been dedicated to
technologies CAD and technical collaboration (Kalay,
2004), such as, the use of file sharing software Although in the case of the remote sketching process,
we would have to highlight what Kalay explained as,
creative collaboration centred around a “process of
shared creation, where the exchange de ideas among the participants helps to stimulate and enrich their own
Trang 5Creative Collaborative Strategies of Remote Sketching on Design 243
creativity” (Ibid, p 405) One of the main
considerations one should have in mind concerning
working from a distance is the implementation of the
layout drawing The new groupware for online work:
the Web conference online programs or “virtual
collaborative space”, incorporate an interactive
whiteboard that allows users to visualize and share
every stroke that a participant performs We are
interested in analysing and verifying the potential of
such kind of tools for sketching and communicating
from a distance
Team sketching from a distance can be the visual
sharing of a digital copy of a pencil made sketch or of
a sketch created using specialized design computer
software An outline of project involves a verbal
discussion along with the synchronous execution of
sketching traces For the time being, several
limitations exist for this type of layout drawings;
primarily concerning the preference of designers for
the use of hand and paper drafts instead of computer
peripherals such as the graphic tablet As for the use of
the interactive whiteboard, teams are not accustomed
to sharing simultaneously the visualization and the
accompanying explanations of the sketches
In the area of team sketching, individual
participation depends on the internalization of personal
ideas and the exchange with others, in this case, “the
sketches are a useful tool for checking and conveying
ideas, for self and others They also serve as an
external display to facilitate inference and discovery,
to go from the intended to the unintended, to go from
the seen to the unseen” (Tversky, 2002) Heiser al
(2004) also highlights that group sketches “serve as a
platform for inference, reasoning and insight” (p.1)
and “the virtues of a shared sketch in creating and
maintaining common ground and in serving as a joint
product should be effective in enhancing collaboration
on abstract problems as well as concrete ones.”(p.9) It
is important to note that in team sketching the process
is focused on the “interaction between participants”,
the existence of an evaluation process, and the benefits
of collaboration (Ibid) So in other words, the role of
sketching in team work is oriented mainly towards:
Exploring and triggering the iterations of
individual or group ideas in the dynamics of
the design process;
Encouraging communication between
participants about the graphic externalization
of the first ideas without a clear verbal
explanation (See the work of Nagai and
Noguchi, about the transformation of key
words into images 2003; 2008)
Highlighting and evaluating graphic proposals developed by the group
Although there are other creative techniques
fundamental to collaborative design work, such as,
c-Sketch by Shah al (2001) or Brainsketching by Van
der Lugt (2002), we consider this emerging field to be
in great need of exploration, particularly through the evaluation of repercussions in academic and professional design development
Through this study, our goal is to analyse the team work of designers in a synchronous space The new technological developments of the synchronous work systems (web conference systems and the interactive whiteboard), allow us to enquire into the possibility of team sketching from a distance, especially on which strategies and interactions manifest themselves during the exchange of ideas through electronic and synchronous sketching
2 Case Study
The main motivation behind this study is to explore creative strategies in the areas of computer science and remote team collaboration For this reason, we present the following case study which focuses on the analysis
of creative behaviour in teams at the initial stage of the design process
In a laboratory, experimental studies on creativity emphasize the quantitative measurement of the production of an individual's ideas (Smith al 2003) In our case, due to the explorative nature of the study and the conditions of the team activities, we couldn't determine beforehand the experimental variables; we only had access to the manipulation of the experimental task in our study proposal Creative experiments generally focus on the analysis of creative output, in other words, the quantity or quality of the ideas produced In our case, we wanted to analyze the creative group behaviour in collaborative activities So
we were only able to control the experimental task by introducing a problem within the professional scenario, that is to say, a problem which presents itself between a client and a designer (Cross, 2007) This simulation leads the participants to work collaboratively
Trang 6244 L.M Jimenez-Narvaez and A Segrera
2.1 Method
The study involved seven subjects that were
geographically dispersed2 The seven participants
consisted of the following: A director of a research
laboratory of cognitive ergonomics that appeared as a
client and 6 designers (4 female and 2 male) with more
than 5 years of professional experience each The
designers were divided in three teams of two T1, a
pair consisting of an industrial designer and a graphic
designer (two females), T2 two industrial designers
(males) The members of T1 and T2 have more than
15 years of individual professional experience and
personally know each other but had not worked
together before T3 consisted of 2 industrial designers
(females) that offer their services as a team to small
scale companies for the past 4 years
Task
The task at hand was to design the graphic image of a
research laboratory The task was proposed and carried
out having in mind that the participants assume
different roles in the function of the team On the
client side, the participant was required to express his
request within 15 minutes in a precise manner and to
supply sufficient information on the research
laboratory in order to create a credible
experimental/work scenario for the others participants
From their part, the designers had to have sufficient
design abilities in order to come up with several
different design proposals within a time span of 30
minutes
System and procedure
After a thorough evaluation of groupware programmes
for synchronous work in conjunction with the
investigation team (Blond, 2009; Jimenez, 2010), the
web video conference system and the interactive
whiteboard of Vyew (www.vyew.com) were chosen
along with Skype (www.skype.com) for audio
communication amongst the participants Vyew has
the advantage of offering a complete palette of design
tools and the ability to open several worksheets that
allow for simultaneous sketching amongst the
participants In figure 1 we present Vyew along with
its several functions Each participant was located in a
2 This experiment was performed by Blond (2009) and Jimenez
(2010) under the direction of profesor Jean-Marc Robert of
Polytechnic School of Montreal and the Maison de technologies de
information of Montréal (MATI-Montreal) at the Laboratory of
usability www.matimtl.ca
workplace, working on a notebook equipped with a web camera and a graphic tablet
The interactions amongst each and every one participant through the system, were recorded using the software Morae® This programme does not allow the creation of independent or free quotations during the observation of the activities of the participants For this reason, the recordings were transferred into AVI (Audio Video Interleave) format audio video so that they can be subsequently analysed with the content analysis software Atlas TI® version 5.2 This software allowed us to analyse the graphic content of each worksheet that was produced by the teams as well as the verbal content of their interactions
Work space Vyew – Interactive whiteboard
Oral Annotations
Client
Participant A
Participant B
Participant C
Audioconference - Skype
Fig 1 Graphical depiction of the utilized systems (Vyew
and Skype)
3 Analysis of Collaborative Sketching Production
Concerning the analysis of the collaborative sketching
production, Carroll cites the Kit of factor-referenced
cognitive test of Ekstrom and Harman (1976) which
includes a measuring instrument for the figurative fluidity, such as one's ability to “the ability to draw quickly a number of examples, elaborations, or restructurings based on a given visual or descriptive stimulus” (in Carroll, 1993, p 432) Each design sketch represents a unit which is measured without reference to its quality or legibility; what matters is the produced quantity
In the collaborative design teamwork analysis of Visser (2009) on the graphic ideas production, it is suggested that each idea represented graphically
should be analysed as a unit Smith al (2003) examine
whether this process of accounting of the verbal
Trang 7Creative Collaborative Strategies of Remote Sketching on Design 245
expression, whether graphical or gestural, by units, is
presented in all the tests of experimental analysis of
the ideas production In our study we use this approach
in order to identify the graphic units created within the
dynamic of the teams
3.1 Analysis of the Production of Work Ideas
The client has a meeting with each team, presenting to
them his demands in verbal form in order to define the
design in question, for 10 minutes Afterwards, the
teams verbally interact with the client for 11 (T1), 15
(T2) and 6 (T3) minutes During this period, the teams
formulate questions for the client in order to establish
common points of reference and make the request as
specific as possible
The first part of the work of the team is realised in
a verbal form, the sketches accompany the verbal
discussion that was centred around the selection of the
“work categories” (Vargas-Hernandez al., 2001), also
referred as “the work ideas” by Lawson (in Cross,
2007)
These initial ideas are key-words directly
originating from the client's request The teams
concentrate in making sketches that describe these
words and explore the images within their figurative
context as demonstrated in figure 2
Fig 2 Details of the worksheets of “work ideas” of T3
concerning client’s request
Once the teams have selected the work ideas and the
keywords to take into account, we observe that there
exist two types of work inside the group: a) a nominal
work, in which each participant draws their layout
sketch on the same page in a parallel way and b) a
simultaneous work, in which one participant draws
while the other watches, talks or adds details This
kind of work organisation directly relates to the time
the members of each team have spent working together
and is a behaviour that has been observed by Isaksen
(1994) and has been defined as the time of maturing of the group
We assume that in the context of this experiment, these characteristics were found in the participating teams, in which the form of organization of work depends on the time of maturity in working together The T1 and T2 teams, who were not accustomed to
work together demonstrated a nominal work, while the T3 team remained a working simultaneously Two
of the T1 and T3 participants expressed a preference for working alone on a sheet of paper However, one designer of T1 expressed the preference to working alone, so that after this designer has understood the customer demand and had sufficient sketches; this participant began the process of sharing ideas
In table 1 we can see that the way of individual ideas production obtains two different dynamics in accordance to this work organisation
Figure 3 summarizes the work performed by the teams in the ideas production as well as the interactions amongst the iterations of ideas between team’s members This type of organisation of the ideas production, observed at table 1, has a direct impact on the transformation of the ideas of the group The ideas generated by the group are the result of the sharing, integration and elimination of the individually produced ideas
In order to recognize them, we used the identification criteria proposed by Badke-Schaub and Frankenberger (2002); that consist of the analysis of the critical moment in which the designers intervene with the purpose of guide the ideas and align them to the restrictions imposed by the client's request, when they generate concepts that resolve the problem at hand or when they take decisions concerning the proposed ideas of their co-workers
Table 1 Ways of work organisation to share “work ideas”
Team organization
Type of team idea integration
Nominal/
Parallel
Selective Team assorts one idea of one member
Additive Team takes one idea of each member
Interactive/
Synergy
Integrative Team joints all ideas of all members
Inclusive The team takes one main idea
of one member and adds details
Idea 1 Detail 2 Detail 3
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During the collective idea production: co-production,
in the nominal/parallel work, we note that the teams
T1 has a selective comportment and T2 has a additive
comportment, these teams seem to show more
individual iterations on the same “work idea” and that
the team units correspond to the selection of the
sketches of the others On the other hand, during
interactive/simultaneous/synergic work, the team T3
shows an integrative and inclusive comportment, in
this team T3, theirs group idea integrates the
interpretations of the work ideas of the participants: it
shows more ideas integrations and more of the group
ideas iterations like are showing for the team T3 in
figure 3
In Figure 3, we find a summary of the analysis of
production of the graphic units drawn, in order to
express the teams' ideas As we have already
mentioned, a unit is an idea expressed by the use of a
word, a drawing or a gesture (Carroll, 1993) In the
teams' general work we observed that verbal
communication occupied an important place in the
expression of ideas, this behaviour has also been
observed by Johnson (2005) especially in the process
of ideation Once the corresponding verbalizations
toward the work ideas have been expressed, for
example, "we can use the USB symbol" (participant in
T2), the participant proceeds to draw the "work idea”
In this way, we are able to present the sum of
individual ideas within each group, see the first row of
Figure 3
Fig 3 Collaborative team ideas production in relation to the
“work ideas” and individual interactions
Next, we can see in the second row, the average
number of iterations each team directed at their own
individual work ideas We can see that the creative
behaviour in regards to the presentation of ideas of T1
is purely individual Each participant works independently, without modifying nor intervening in the generating of their teammates ideas Then in the third row, we see the integration of the individuals' proposed ideas, T2 and T3 are able to integrate their
individual ideas and generate some group units
observable in the fourth row Finally, in the fifth row
we see that only T3 succeeded at iterating in the ideas developed by the group
Although, remote collaborative sketching was a new experience for all three groups, the participants expressed their satisfaction with the interaction, in the stage of ideation and in the use of synchronous tools (Blond, 2009) The teams relied mainly on verbal brainstorming and remote sketching as a tool for producing ideas in groups
While the result of the quality variable (quality of the outputs: originality or rarity of the ideas) in regards
to ideas was not studied, it was observed that in the strategies of creative collaboration two kinds of productivity could be seen: individual and group Group productivity depends largely on the individual comportment or the individual ability to effectively integrate the ideas developed by all team members, which in turn depends on the environment and conditions of social interaction (Taggar, 2002; VanGundy, 1984), including those working in remote collaboration
4 Discussion and Future Investigation
In synchronous remote work, the presentation of the client’s request and the work of selection of work ideas develop through verbal communication On the
stage of co-production the participants can organise
themselves in order to exchange their ideas in a
nominal/parallel way or in an organisation of ideas
presented in an interactive/simultaneous/synergic
way This form of organisation seems to be in relation with the time of work maturity of the team (Isaksen, 1994) Only, T3 was showing this comportement –they
are the team with more time of previous work together
Each way or organization will generate different patterns of communication and integration of the individual “ideas of work” The teams make the selection of the ideas, once these are drafted, in a verbal way This process involves work cycles in which the nominal work requires verbal communication for the group idea selection; as for the simultaneous work, the audio conference needs to withstand the whole process of group idea formation Without the synchronous verbal communication, the
Trang 9Creative Collaborative Strategies of Remote Sketching on Design 247
exchange or the selection of ideas, which will lead to
the formation of group ideas, would not be possible
In the beginning of this investigation, we were
hoping that within a digital synchronous workspace, a
sketching strategy would be the re-utilisation of the
sketch traces created by the co-workers However, the
re-utilisation of the sketches or the copy/paste action
was not observed in any of the teams The designers
prefer to re-utilise the work ideas that are expressed in
a verbal manner and then initiate a new cycle of
individual graphic interpretation of a “work idea”
expressed verbally, than the copy of the drawings
(which expressed initially those ideas of work) of their
co-workers
In future investigations, we would like to verify
whether this characteristic manifests itself due to the
lack of specific computer aptitudes from the
participants, concerning these collaborative
technologies or the use of electronic devices
The choice of the Vyew system was made taking
into account the several different sketching tools that
are available in this software and the ease of use that
the interactive worksheets of the whiteboard offer
However, the participants had difficulties using them
for several reasons: Difficulties with digital sketching
using a pencil and a graphic tablet, their preference for
individual alone sketching on paper, as well as the
discontentment the designers showed with the lag that
there exists between the making of a sketch and the
actual appearance of the image within the system Also,
two participants expressed a non agreement to have to
sketching in a shared space; they would prefer the
unaccompanied work in the sheet of paper –like an
individual space (Blond, 2009)
The above mentioned difficulties justify our
interest in continuing our investigation on the digital
and synchronous sketching, as well as on the work
forms that can optimize the dynamic of collective
sketching and of course the development of new
aptitudes that will allow participants to interact
remotely, using these new technologies of
synchronous work
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Fonds québécois
de la recherche sur la nature et les technologies
(FQRNT) for the scholarship awarded to teacher
Jimenez-Narvaez for her work in the project “Virtual
spaces for the innovation” Also, they extend their
gratitude to Nikolaos Gryspolakis for the translation of
the Spanish text into English and Debora McKinley for
the last revision of the text
The authors would appreciate receiving your comments at the e-mail: arturo.segrera@umontreal.ca
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