Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary - Part 106 pdf

10Base-After ratification of Ethernet as a standard IEEE 802.3, a number of variations were defined to support twisted pair and fiber optics physical me-dia and data formats transmitting

Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary

into sections or zones Cables are centralized in each

zone, with main arteries running between zones or

to the central power source See distribution frame

zone of authority The set of names managed by, or

under the authority of, a specific name server

zone of silence, skip zone In radio transmissions, a

geographic region that does not receive normal

ra-dio signals, frequently due to abrupt changes in

ter-rain, (e.g., mountains)

zone paging The capability of an intercom or phone

system to selectively page certain groups of

speak-ers See public address system

zone punch In a punch card, a punch located in one

of the upper three rows (the section that usually has

less text displayed on the card) See Hollerith card,

punch card Contrast with digit punch

zone time Asystem in which the Earth is divided

lon-gitudinally into 24 time zones of about 15 degrees

each starting in Greenwich, England It was

devel-oped in the late 1800s by a Canadian, S Fleming, to

establish a standard time See Greenwich Mean Time

zoning, stepping In microwave transmissions,

dis-placement ofportions ofthe surface ofthe microwave

reflectorinorder to prevent changes in the phase front

in the near field

zoom To continuously reduce or enlarge an image,

as on a monitor or in a viewfmder Zooming

capabil-ity is usually provided to improve the visibilcapabil-ity of

details (zoom in), or to provide a 'big picture, wide

angle' view (zoom out) of a diagram, object, image,

or scene See zoom factor

zoom factor The degree to which an image can be

scaled, that is, decreased or enlarged The X and Y

axes mayor may not be capable of sizing

indepen-dent ofone another The enlargement zoom factor on

consumer camcorders often ranges from 20 to 200

times (or more) the normal viewing factor In some

cases, the zoom factor on still cameras and

cam-corders may be digitally enhanced, that is, the zoom

up to 20 times may be an optical zoom and, beyond

that, it may be a digital zoom, which may show some

pixelation at higher zoom factors See zoom

zoom lensAnapparatus that provides the ability to

reduce or enlarge the apparent size of an image in

order to frame that image with the desired scope or

to enhance detail Commonly used on video and film

cameras, and sometimes on telescopes and

bin-oculars

zsh, Z shell AUnix command interpreter shell,

simi-lar to ksh, developed by Paul Falstad Zsh is said to

be similar to a bash shell, but fasterandwith more

features Zsh is not a Posix-compliant implementation Zulu time Greenwich Mean Time, Coordinated Uni-versal Time

Zuse, Konrad (1910-1995) AGerman structural en-gineer and inventor who independently created pio-neer general purpose calculating and computing tech-nologies, coincident with the development of the Attanasoff-Berry computer in the U.S and Alan Turing's computing theories in England Zuse's ac-complishment is remarkable, considering he didn't have the corporate and university facilities, funding, and personnel support that led to the development of other pioneer computing systems

Zuse began building computers in his mid-20s from

a studio he set up in his parents' apartment He re-ports in his autobiography that he originated the con-cept in 1934, and constructed the VI, later called the

ZI, between 1936 and 1938 His early notebooks de-scribe important binary computing concepts The Z1 included mechanical memory for data storage (for practical reasons of space and ease of construction) and used program instructions punched into film Later, Zuse added the Z2, Z3 and Z4, with a friend, Helmut Schreyer, providing expertise on electronic relays and vacuum tubes Zuse considered his Z3 re-lay-based version to be a true binary computer (the original Z3 was destroyed after World War II bomb-ing raids) A reproduction has been installed in the Deutsches Museum The Z4, which began develop-ment in 1942, was demonstrated in April 1945, and operated in ZUrich from 1950 to 1955 From Zuse's agile mind came also a pioneer algorithmic program-ming language called PlanKalkiiel (plan calculus) that was developed in the mid-1940s See Attanasoff-Berry computer; Hertzstark, Curt

Zworykin, Vladimir Kosma (1889-1982) A Rus-sian-born American physicist and electrical engineer who emigrated to America in 1919 and worked for Westinghouse Electric Company in the 1920s Zworykin developed an idea to control the passage

of beams in an electron tube with magnets to devise

a cathode-ray tube (CRT), which he patented in 1928

This historic CRT led to his development ofthe icono-scope, a practical television camera In 1929

Zworykin demonstrated a cathode-ray-based display device, the same basic concept as current computer and television monitors In the same year, Zworykin became the director of research for the Radio Cor-poration of America (RCA) In November 1935, he received a patent for his apparatus for producing images(U.S #2,021,907)

4B/5BFiber transmissions cable that is commonly

used in asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and

Fi-ber Distributed Data Interface (FOOl) networks This

4-byte/5-byte multifiber cable can support

transmis-sion speeds up to about 100 Mbps See 8B/I OB

6boneAnIETF-supported international collaboration

testbed providing policies and procedures for the

evo-lution of Internet Protocol (IP) The name 6bone is

derived frombackbonea major 'artery' of the

Inter-net, IP version 6 6bone is designed to be used in the

development, deployment, and evolution of the

In-ternet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) which is intended

to succeed the current Internet protocol IPv4

This testbed and transition project is essential in that

the Internet is not one machine and one agency

run-ning it, but a global collaboration of computing

de-vices managed and owned by many different

per-sonal, commercial, and governmental entities The

6bone provides not only a means to test the many

fea-tures and concepts of the new systems, but also a

means for developing and deploying a transition

in-frastructure

The 6bone is a virtual network that is layered on

por-tions of the current physical structure of the

IPv4-based Internet IPv4 routers are not designed to

ac-commodate IPv6 packets By layering IPv6 on the

existing structure, the routing ofIPv6 packets can be

accomplished prior to the implementation of

en-hanced physical structures, particularly routers

de-signed to take advantage of the features of IPv6

To understand the 6bone virtual structure, imagine

various workstation-class computers, such as those

commonly used as servers in various communities

and institutions Provide these machines with

oper-ating system support for IPv6 so that they have

di-rect support for the IPv6 packets Now provide a

means through the Internet for these machines to

in-terconnect and communicate with one another

through virtual point-to-point links calledtunnels,

thus managing the links on behalf of physical

rout-ers until IPv6 support is more widespread

Eventu-ally, as the Internet is upgraded to IPv6, this interim

system will be replaced by agreement with direct

physical and virtual IPv6 support

Networking & Telecommunications Department See IPv4, IPv6, MBone, X-Bone See RFC 2546, RFC 2772 http://www-6bone.lbl.gov/6bone/ 8B/I0BThe designation for a fiber transmission cable suitable for high speed networks This 8-byte/1 O-byte multifiber cable can support transmission speeds up

to about 149.76 Mbps See 4B/5B

10Base-After ratification of Ethernet as a standard (IEEE 802.3), a number of variations were defined

to support twisted pair and fiber optics physical me-dia and data formats transmitting at rates of 10 MBps See Ethernet Standards chart

10 Gbit Ethernet lOGbE A telecommunications technology developed within the IEEE 802.3ae work-ing committee (a subcommittee of the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Working Group), based upon the evolution

of Ethernet/Fast Ethernet technologies The project began in spring 1999 to extend and update the capa-bilities of Ethernet and was approved by ballot in March 2001, a milestone toward standards ratifica-tion that is expected in 2002

10GbE differs from earlier versions in a couple of physical interface aspects It includes a long-haul optical transceiver capable of40 kilometers or more,

or physical medium-dependent (PMD) interface for single-mode fiber This can be used with either a LAN

or WAN physical layer to support metropolitan area networks (MANs) Secondly, 10GbE includes an optional WAN physical (PHY), enabling 10GbE to

be transported transparently over SONET OC-192c

or SOH VC-464c infrastructures

In general, lOGbE multimode fiber connections are expected to transmit 65 or 300 meters or more and 9-micron diameter single-mode fiber connections are expected to transmit 10,000 to40,000meters or more Initial implementations are expected to include high-speed local backbones in large-capacity installations (campuses, ISPs, etc.)

10 Gbit Ethernet AllianceAnonprofit trade alliance promoting standards-based 10 Gigabit Ethernet tech-nology development, distribution, and utilization The founding members include 3Com, Cisco Systems, Extreme Networks, Intel, Nortel Networks, Sun Mi-crosystems, and World Wide Packets

http://www.1 Ogea.org/

Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary

lOOBase-TA baseband signaling networking

stan-dard supporting Fast Ethernet with data transfer rates

up to 100 Mbps 1OOBase-T is intended to provide a

faster option to Ethernet networks based originally

upon 1OBase-T carrier sense multiple access systems

1OOBase-T is described in IEEE 802.3u 1OOBase-T

specifications can be supported over a variety of

physical media configurations

Type Physical Medium/Notes

1OOBase-TX data-quality twisted pair

Requires at least Cat 5 cable As in

1OBase-T, the data is not split and

may be used in full-duplex

transmission modes

IOOBase-T4 4 pairs ofregular twisted pair

Requires at least Cat 3 cable The

data stream is divided into three

33-Mbps streams with the 4th

twisted pair used for error

mechanisms Half-duplex

transmission

100Base-FX dual-stranded fiber optics

Segments may be up to 412 meters

lOOBaseVG-AnyLANA commercial LAN from Hewlett-Packard that was later refined and standard-ized by the IEEE 802.12 committee and ratified in

1995 as 802.2 Like 100Base-T (Fast Ethernet), it provides data rates of 100 Mbps It is similar to Fast Ethernet, and capable of carrying Ethernet and To-ken-Ring transmissions simultaneously A VG net-work consists of nodes connected to hub ports in a star topology Hubs are interconnected through a tree topology This technology has not found the same widespread commercial acceptance as 1OOBase-T See High Speed Token-Ring

lOOBASE-SXTIA/EIA/ANSI-785 The Short Wave-length Fast Ethernet Standard developed as Project SP-4360 by the FO 2.2 committee, approved June

2001 This standard was developed to provide a clear, cost-effective means to upgrade local area networks (LANs) from 10-Mbps copper or fiber to lOO-Mbps fiber with a cabling structure different from that of Gigabit Ethernet Thus, 10BASE-FLcan be upgraded

to 100BASE-SX fairly readily and may be less ex-pensive than Gigabit Ethernet deployed over Cat 5

or higher cabling It uses 850-nm optical media for backward compatibility with 10BASE-FL and is similar to 1OOBASE-FX, with the same signal encod-ing structure lOOBASE-SX differs from 100BASE-FX in that it uses lower cost 850-nm optics, has a local distance of 300+ meters, and does

Ethernet Standards - Overview

lOBase-2 10 Mbps baseband "thin" Ethernet 50-ohm coaxial cable as a network physical

transmissions medium Up to 30 stations can be supported per cable segment of up to

200 meters This format is popular for small local area networks connecting personal computers See RFC 1983

lOBase-5 Essentially Ethernet delivered over a standard or "thick" Ethernet 50-ohm cable at data

rates of 10 Mbps over cable segments up to 500 meters

lOBase-F A physical layer specification for 10-Mbps data rates over fiber optic cable

lOBase-FL 10-Mbps baseband fiber optic network links supporting transmission segments of up to

two kilometers, with a maximum of two devices per segment (station and hub)

Multiple stations may be connected through a hub in a star topology There are commercial media converters available for connecting twisted pair (1 OBase-T) cables

to 10Base-FL Ethernet-based networks to extend twisted pair cable lengths with optical connections Converters may be used with regenerating repeaters

lOBase-T A physical transmissions medium supporting up to 10 Mbps of baseband transmissions

over twisted pair(T)that is commonly interconnected withRJ-45cables (the ones that have connectors that look like fat RJ-l1 phone connectors) Three or more stations can

be interconnected in a star topology through a hub (and stars can be interconnected through a 'bus' topology) It's a convenient method of connection since the loss of a station in the star doesn't bring down the rest of the network as in a ring topology The Manchester scheme of binary coding is typically used with 10Base-T

lOBroad36 A multiple-channel network broadband signaling system that can be implemented over

single or dual coaxial cables The bandwidth is subdivided into two or more channels for the simultaneous transmission of different types of signals as might be found with multimedia communications Segments can support transmission distances of up to

3600 meters per segment

I

standard connectors meeting minimum performance

requirements may be used

A new Physical Media Dependent (PMD) sublayer

has been defined as part of the standard, as has an

optional auto-negotiation mechanism Above the

physical layer, the standard remains the same as

pre-vious implementations and is intended to be used

along with IEEE 802.3 (1998) that is prevalent in

LANs Thus, 100BASE-SX is intended to fit in well

with established Ethernet/Fast Ethernet

environ-ments

1000Base-T An IEEE standard approved in 1997,

developed by the P802.3ab study group This

stan-dard defines a full duplex Gigabit Ethernet signaling

system for category 5 (Cat 5) network systems

Un-like 1OOBase-TX transceivers, which use only two

pairs of wires, one in each direction, 1OOOBase-T

transmits on all four pairs simultaneously from both

directions of each pair This creates a more complex

system and a greater potential for crosstalk See far

end crosstalk, near end crosstalk

802.3, 802.30, 802.3z An IEEE-specified family of

Ethernet standards ranging from 10 Mbps to Gigabit

Ethernet that are commonly used on local area

net-works The maximum distance depends in part upon

the cabling For example, for 802.3, a maximum

seg-ment length would be 500 meters for "thick"

Ether-net (10Base-5) or 185 meters for "thin" EtherEther-net

(10Base-2) See Ethernet Standards chart

802.5 An IEEE-specified token-passing network

sys-tem using differential Manchester coding for up to

250 workstations to a maximum distance of 101

meters at 1 or 4 Mbps

General

IBLabbrev. 1 single bottom line 2 one business

line

lEAXA GTE variant of Western Electric/AT&T's

ESSIA telephone switching system See lA,

Elec-tronic Switching System 1.214 License A Section 214

license is issued by the Federal Communications

Commission (FCC) to qualifying applicants

pursu-ant to the Communications Act It charges the FCC

with the responsibility ofdetermining whether

appli-cants have demonstrated that their proposal will serve

the public interest and need Thus, activities such as

corporate expansions and mergers require prior

Sec-tion 214 FCC approval In the mid-1990s, the FCC

streamlined the applications process such that it is

au-tomatically granted if no one objects during a period

set aside for public comment

2D two-dimensional Existing or described in two

spatial dimensions or in terms oftwo selected realms

of data.ACartesian coordinate system is a graphical

representation ofdata in two dimensions The

dimen-sions need not be spatial, they may be quantities, time,

or other types of information that may be plotted

Two-dimensional systems representing spatial

con-cepts commonly tend to be flat in the sense that they

represent width and breadth but not depth In call

ac-counting, 2D representations may illustrate profits

connections over time or downtime over time are commonly represented as 2D graphs

3D three-dimensional Existing or described in three spatial dimensions or in tenns ofthree selected realms

of data or time A Cartesian coordinate system can graphically represent three dimensions but often does

so in two-dimensional spatial conventions that use an illusion of 'stretching into space' in the Z (third) di-mension A photograph is a representation of spatial relationships in two dimensions whereas a sculpture

is a representation of spatial relationships in three dimensions.Ingraphical representations and statis-tical reports, time is often one of three dimensions represented For example, an accounting log may track new versus established employees' sales over

a period of three months Thus, employee status is treated as one dimension, the number of sales as the second, and time as the third

In telecommunications, one of the most~ignificant

developments is in the representation ofthree-dimen-sional space through graphical rendering or ray-trac-ing or through NCR-type controller systems that can translate three-dimensional data into physical struc-tures This opens up a new world ofcommunications

It becomes feasible, given enough speed and re-sources, to model a sculpture remotely One artist may supply the coordinates (or a model) in one location and another may 'render' the sculpture with, for ex-ample, a milling machine, in another location, per-haps thousands of miles away Thus, a metalwork-ing shop in the U.S could conceivably craft a new tool in a remotely controlled milling machine in a rural region in Africa A physician in Canada could remotely carry out a liver operation on a patient in Germany.Anengineer could remotely control a re-pair robot on a space station or space probe, without leaving Earth Once the 3D world can be represented

by data that can be instantly transmitted over great distances, a whole new world oftelecommunications applications becomes possible

3GWireless Third generation wireless systems for telecommunications services through radio technolo-gies as described by global telecommunications trade associations and standards bodies, and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) This category encompasses a wide variety of mobile systems that may be linked into terrestrial or satellite-based munications relays and implies a general overall com-patibility with existing and emerging systems For FCC administrative purposes these systems are con-sidered to be capable of supporting high bit-rate cir-cuit and packet data transmissions with GPS and roaming capabilities with a reasonable degree of interoperability and standardization

In an October 2000 U.S Presidential Memorandum the Secretary ofCommerce was directed to work with the FCC to develop a plan for the administration of radio spectrum frequencies for third generation wire-less systems so that spectrum frequencies could be allocated in 2001 with licenses auctioned by 2002 The 2500- to 2690- and 1755- to 2690-MHz frequency

Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary

bands were pinpointed for feasibility studies

Regu-lations arising from these studies can impact

exist-ing services (cell phones, PCS, etc.) if reallocation

of bandwidth is recommended Final reports of

dis-cussions between the FCC and the NTIA came online

in spring 2001 http://www.fcc.gov/3G/

Microprocessors

I Aprocessor used in AT&T electronic switching

sys-tems, developed by Western Electric in the 1960s

See lA

IA A processor used in AT&T electronic switching

systems (ESSs), developed by Western Electric in the

1970s as a successor to the 1 processor

InESS lA (a.k.a No.1AESS), a commonly-used

elec-tronic switching system, the lA processor provides

maintenance and administrative support and

inter-faces with the central control For readouts of

oper-ating and maintenance data, the 1A also can be

inter-faced with operator terminals for receiving

instruc-tions and outputting status information Control

pan-els may be further used for lA input/output

The No.4ESS digital toll switch also uses this

pro-cessor

4004Anearly 4-bit central processing unit (CPU)

from Intel as part of the MCS-4 chipset released in

1969 See Intel, MCS-4

68000, MC68000A 32-bit central processing unit

commonly used in Amiga, Macintosh, and other

com-puters, the first in a series by Motorola See Motorola

8008A historic 8-bit central processing unit (CPU)

from Intel, released as a successor to the 4004 as part

of the MCS-8 chipset in 1972 The historic Altair

computer was based on this processor See Altair,

Intel

8080An 8-bit central processing unit (CPU) released

by Intel in 1974 RAM addressing was limited to 64

kilobytes It was incorporated into a number ofearly

microcomputers including the first model released by

International Business Machines (IBM) in 1980

8086A successor to the 8080, the 8086 was an Intel

16-bit central processing unit (CPU) It could address

I Mbyte ofRAM This chip was quickly incorporated

into new versions ofthe IBM computers and was also

used by manufacturers licensing IBM technology in

competition with IBM See Intel and Motorola for

charts of other numbered microprocessors

See also listings under Intel and Motorola

Publications

2001 Fiberoptic Undersea Systems SummaryA

market research summary and CD-ROM database

published by KMI Corporation.Itincludes an

over-view of the submarine fiber optics industry, along

with information on mergers, acquisitions, new

sys-tem developments, installation cost analyses, maps

and profiles of fiber optics systems, and regional

ac-tivities See KMI Corporation

2001 Update to Worldwide Markets for Dense

Wave-length-Division MultiplexingA market report on

DWDM systems worldwide published by KMI

Cor-poration, completed in November 2000 The report

describes cyclic trends in the industry and predicts growth and flat periods based upon trends to date See KMI Corporation

Telephone Prefix Calling Numbers/Services

0345A 'shared tariff' telephone prefix and service offered by British Telecom to enable callers to pay local call rates no matter where the physical location

of the number may be within the area covered by the company offering the service, e.g., within the U.K This can provide businesses with a way to give in-formation to callers responding to a marketing cam-paign, for example, in such a way that the caller bears part of the cost and thus will probably not call out of idle curiosity alone.Itis an alternative to a 0800 num-ber where the callee bears the full cost of the call

0500A reverse charge telephone service introduced

by Mercury in the U.K in 1992 that is similar to the British Telecom (BT) 0800 service See 0800

0645A 'shared tariff' telephone service introduced

by Mercury in the U.K that is similar to the British Telecom (BT) 0345 service See 0345

070A European national telephone services provid-ing a subscriber (typically a business) with a portable number at which they can be reached from any call-ing location in the country The caller pays for the call, based upon National Call rates This is especially useful when a business moves, as directory listings, stationery, and other business identifiers don't have

to be changed to reflect a new number

0800A European 'FreePhone' service offered by WorldCom, Global Carrier Services, and others, simi-larto North American 800 service, that makes it pos-sible for callers to call the 0800-prefIXed number free

of charge, with the company holding the 0800 num-ber bearing the cost It's essentially a 'collect' or 're-versed charge' call that is put through directly as a continuing service, without going through operators

or authorization to accept the call Golden 0800 num-bers are those that are inherently easy to remember (e.g., 0800 555 0000) or that correspond to a mne-monic (e.g., 0800 callnow) Most phone companies charge a premium for golden numbers but sometimes you get lucky See 0345, 800

0990A national pay telephone service number pre-fix and telephone service offered in the U.K by Brit-ish Telecom (BT) It is similar to U.S 900-prefix ser-vices that are typically billed by the minute 0990 numbers are used for dating services, psychic-style services, and sex services Not all businesses using these numbers are ethical They are required to play

a recording to infonn customers that they are being billed, but some 'neglect' this requirement Some keep the caller on the line for a long time by asking personal questions or chatting, in order to increase the call duration and hence the charges.Itis possible

to make 0990 services accessible from Internet phone gateways (almost 1/3 of the call lines are accessed this way in the U.K.) and, once again, the vendor is required to inform the caller that they are being billed

0990 rates

Due to problems with enforcing ethical and legal 0990

(NTT) reduced the maximum charges a vendor could

accumulate for each 0990 call

155In the U.K., the British Telecom (BT) code for

connecting with an international operator

555-1212In the U.S., a dialing sequence for

contact-ing the Directory Assistance service (formerly the

Information service) for obtaining long-distance

pub-licly listed telephone numbers.Itis useful for

obtain-ing new numbers that may not yet be listed, or

num-bers published elsewhere geographically Prior to the

mid-1960s, the dialing code for Information was 113

Most North American telephone exchanges use this

number as a standard See 555-1212

611Atelephone dialing code for contacting telephone

maintenance and repair services to request assistance

with telephone services and equipment Unlike

ser-vices prior to the mid-1960s, 611 numbers were used

through a transitional period during which the phone

company's monopoly was challenged and

subscrib-ers began to select their own telephone equipment

from third-party vendors and eventually were

permit-ted to install or modify the line extending from the

phone company's line attachment point into the

pre-mises (depending upon the service and region) Thus,

repair services didn't just schedule the repair any

more, they would query the 611 caller about the

na-ture of the problem and try to guess whether it was

being caused by the phone company's line or service

or the subscriber's line and equipment If it was

sus-pected that the problem was with subscriber

equip-ment, the phone company would warn the subscriber

about minimum and hourly charges and then confirm

whether they still wanted to call in a repair person

This was more complicated than previous procedures

but not nearly as complicated as what happened a

couple ofdecades later with further deregulation and

burgeoning carriers and phone services

800Aservice in which calls are billed to the receiver

800 numbers are widely used by businesses to

encour-age potential buyers to contact the company through

a toll-free 800 number (or 888 number) without

con-cern about long distances charges These services are

sometimes used internally, through an unpublicized

800 number for traveling employees to contact their

main office or branch When 800 began to be in short

supply, 888 and 877 prefixes/services were added to

extend the available numbers See 0800

800 Service Management System (SMS/800)

FunctionsAFederal Communications Commission

(FCC) Tariff document published by the Bell

Oper-ating Companies (BOCs) to describe the regulations,

rates, and charges applicable to the provision ofSMS/

800 functions and support services through intelligent

telephone networks See SMS/800

877/877/866/855/844/833/822To11-free calling

ser-vice prefixes that were developed to extend the

avail-ability of 800 numbers when 800 numbers

assign-ments were nearing capacity These numbers are

se-quentially opened as needed See 800

900/976 Aset ofnumbers billed to the caller through

a rate determined by the callee 900 services are used

counsellors, astrologers, other prognosticators, and

by vendors offering phone sex Charges for 900 calls usually range from $1.95 to $4.95 per minute These calls are not only somewhat expensive, but some of the less scrupulous 900 vendors will keep the caller on the line longer by asking him or her many personal questions at the beginning of the call It's not unusual for the average call to be around $25 and often they are much more Because of the abuse or overuse of900 numbers, subscribers demanded a way

to disable 900 calling and this is now provided by the phone companies This is mainly to curtail calls by children, 900-addicts, and 900 calls by unauthorized callers using a phone without permission See 0900

911 callingAtelephony service designed to expedite connections to emergency services such as medical services, law enforcement, and fire departments By dialing only three easy-to-remember digits, subscrib-ers can more easily get help when needed This con-cept was first introduced in the 1970s The calls are connected quickly to aPublic Safety Answering Point (PSAP) where a trained emergency dispatcher records the call, determines the origin and nature of the call, responds to the caller, and dispatches services as needed

1571In the U.K., the British Telecom (BT) standard telephone message retrieval number

1660In the U.K., the British Telecom (BT) World-com access number

Telephone Quick-Dial Numbers

112In Europe, the British Telecom (BT) standard emergency telephone number The number 17099 is

an alternate emergency code See 911

113Historically, in the U.S., a telephone dialing se-quence for contacting Information Services, a service that aided subscribers in getting publicly listed phone numbers that were not in the current directory (e.g., new numbers) In the mid-1960s,inNorth America this code was changed to 411 There are other coun-tries where the use of 113 has been retained For ex-ample, in Copenhagen, it is used for overseas direc-tory inquiries See 411

114Historically, in the U.S., a telephone dialing se-quence for contacting telephone maintenance and repair services Ifyou had trouble with your line, you called 114 Since most people had only one phone in those days, you usually went next door to dial from your neighbor's phone while sitting down for a cup ofcoffee and a chat The repair people would sched-ule a visit and repair the problem It was a simpler process in those days Not only was the telephone net-work far more homogenous than now, but the phone company owned the line and the equipment right up

to the phone itself and thus could standardize hard-ware and procedures for making repairs In the

mid-I960s, the dial sequence was changed to 611 and now local phone companies have a variety of numbers to dial for repair services See 611

411In telephony, a short dialing sequence for con-tacting the Directory Assistance service (formerly the

Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary

Information service) for obtaining publicly listed

telephone numbers that may not be listed in the local

directory (or which the caller couldn't find in the

lo-cal directory) It is useful for obtaining new numbers

that may not yet be listed, or numbers published

else-where geographically Prior to the mid-1960s, the

dialing code for Infonnation was 113 Historically,

insome areas the service was free, but it became a

pay service charged by the call More recently, some

phone companies offer bundled services that pennit

up to a specified number ofDirectory Assistance calls

per time period (e.g., per week or month) Most North

American telephone exchanges use this number as a

standard

Until 200 I, in most areas, a caller could request two

numbers for about $.40 but deregulation resulted in

increases ofup to $1.99 for a single number,

depend-ing upon the service provider (Some carriers still

permit two or three calls free per month per

sub-scriber.) As charges rise, it is likely that people will

migrate to CD-ROM directories and Web-based

di-rectory services such as InfoSpace and Switchboard

See 555-1212

Telegraph and Radio

1Ashort telegraphic shortcut numeric code to express

"Wait a moment," "Give me a second," or "Hold on."

See 73 for the background to numeric codes

"10-4"radio signal codes Numeric codes used by

police departments to describe a situation in

short-hand For example, 11 might mean a burglary, while

34 could signal a suicide These codes are regional

and specific to their industries In California, for

ex-ample, a 10-4patrol code indicates message received,

while 10-15 signals a prisoner in custody, and 10-33

is an alarm or indication of an officer needing help

Radio codes are also used by the rail industry for

cross-country trains and subway trains For example,

in the New York City Transit system radio code

sig-nal system, 12-6 sigsig-nals a derailment and 12-12

in-dicates disorderly passengers

Codes are usually used for brevity and consistency,

but may also be used to provide a small amount of

security See "Code 3" radio communications codes

13A shortcut telegraphic numeric code for "I don't

understand." See 73

30 A short telegraphic shortcut numeric code to

ex-press the end ofa communication, thus "Done,"

"Fin-ished." See 73

73 A number in a telegraph numeric 'shortcut' code

dating back to at least the mid-1800s The number

73 was an abbreviated means of representing

vari-ous sentimental, amorvari-ous, and fraternal greetings,

de-pending upon the time, place, and operator It was

similar to the greeting at the end of a letter written

by someone familiar with or fond of the addressee

There is a reference in an 1857 issue of theNational

Tel~¥,aphicReview and OperatorsGuide that lists

"73' as a numeric shortkey code Apparently, a

com-mittee was established at a convention in 1859 to

as-sign meanings to the numbers from 1 to 92, so this may have been the original impetus for more broad use of standardized numeric codes

Some have attributed the origin of 73 and other nu-meric shortcuts to Phillips shortcode, but Walter Polk Phillips didn't publish his code until 1879 and the Phillips code emphasized alphabetic rather than nu-meric relationships Thus, while his contribution was substantial and influential, especially in the news in-dustry, Phillips didn't create an entirely new code; his contribution was to expand, consolidate, and revise existing code practices So, it appears 73 was likely

in use before the Phillips code was developed Whatever their origin, certain of the numeric shortcodes became widely used and still retain their original meanings, while many have fallen into dis-use and some have mutated in meaning The railroad still uses some of the code numbers for train-related orders SeeQsignal, Z code

73 key A somewhat unique-looking, historic, palm-sized telegraph key intended to be portable and thus covered with a squarish metal housing with the user parts protruding from two sides The number 73 was printed on the top of the covers, probably a tongue-in-cheek reference to the number 73 shortcode used

in telegraphy to convey greetings or intimate best wishes The key was distributed and labeled by the Ultimate Transmitter Company, Los Angeles

73 Magazine A magazine of interest to telegraphers and amateur radio operators originated by Wayne Green and associates in 1960 Topics ranged from hobby projects, to in-depth looks at telegraph keys,

to amateur radio enthusiasms, to the history of sub-marine cable communications, and there were even some parody issues Probably not coincidentally, early issues sold for 37 cents each

In the mid-1970s, controversy over the content ofthe magazine provoked Pacific Telephone & Telegraph

Co to file suit against 73, Inc., due to their concerns that the infonnation provided might make it easy for readers to find ways to avoid phone charges Given that this was right around the time that 'blue boxing' was beginning to spread, the concerns may have been based on actual phone service thefts Wayne Green went on to found other magazines, notably 80

Microcomputing, which attracted much of the same

audience that had been interestedinamateur radio and telegraphy prior to the development ofpersonal com-puters

"Code 3" radio communication codes Asystem of numeric codes usedbypolice departments as a short-hand for describing a situation to dispatchers and other officers within radio contact For example, Code

3 might indicate emergency lights and sirens In Dal-las, Code 5 is shorthand for officer en route to a scene while in California, it signifies a stakeout.Inthe Dal-las Police Department, CodelOXis shorthand for a stolen vehicle These are usually prefaced with the word "Code" to distinguish them from similar nu-meric radio signal codes See"10-4" radio signal codes

B Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) 1052

C lTV- T Series Recommendations 1055

D List ofWorld Wide Web Search Engines 1056

E List of Intemet Domain Name Extensions 1057

F Short List of Request for Comments (RFC) 1059

G National Associations 1062

H Dial Equivalents, Radio Alphabet, Morse Code, Metric PrefixesNalues 1066

I ASCII Character and Control Codes 1067

Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary Appendix A

Fiber Optics Timeline

Essential Concepts and Evolution of Fiber Optic Technologies

1879

1891

1795

1866

1700s

1775

1872

1874

1876

1878

1800

1800s

1807

1819

1820

-1650B.C.Ahmose transcribes Egyptian mathematics, which include fractions

-670B.C. Thales engages in abstract and deductive mathematics and investigates magnetism

-500B.C. Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans make important contributions to mathematics and the study of

sound frequency relationships

-260B.C. Archimedes establishes many important, basic principles of physics

-800 The concept of zero is used in mathematics in Asia

-140 Ptolemy describes the interaction of light and matter, which was referred to in Arab texts 1200s L.P Fibonacci authors Liber Abaci (Book ofthe Abacus) in which he promotes the use ofArabic

numerals and positional notation

15/1600s Galileo Galilei makes important observations of the laws of physics, especially of gravity and

bodies in motion

late 1600s Sir Isaac Newton makes important observations about basic physical laws, now widely known

as Newtonian physics or classical physics These highly significant discoveries form the basis of modem physics He observes Newton's rings but doesn't fully appreciate their significance

1676 Ole (Olaf) RiJhmer calculates the velocity of light as a constant 227,000 kilometers/second

1669 Rasmus Bartholin receives a piece of Iceland spar and describes double refraction

mid-1700s Benjamin Franklin conducts numerous experiments with electricity, inspires other scientists, and

coins many terms associated with the emerging science

Luigi Galvani studies electromagnetism in living tissue and galvanometer is developed

Alessandro Volta invents the electrophorus, the basis ofsubsequent electrical condensers, replacing the Leyden jar as an energy storage capacitor

F Salva i Campillo describes a system for an electric telegraph, which he was finally able to construct, in 1804, by incorporating Alessandro Volta's ca 1800 invention of the voltaic pile Alessandro Volta invents the voltaic pile, a pioneer wet cell, forerunner to capacitors

F.W Herschel discovers infrared light and J.W Ritter discovers ultraviolet light

lB Fourier announces Fourier's theorem, which forms the basis for Fourier transforms, now widely used as analytical tools in mathematics and for analyzing/recomposing waves

Humphry Davy uses battery power to separate out and discover potassium and, about a decade later, invents an arc lamp (arc lamps were also invented by others)

H.C 0rsted demonstrates the relationship of electricity and magnetism

A.M Ampere studies the mathematical characteristics of electromagnetism and announces the right-hand rule

Charles Babbage develops important historic models for 'different engines.'

J.N Niepce develops a primitive type of photography, the forerunner of optical recording Charles Babbage develops the concept of an 'analytical engine.' Technology has not yet devel-oped to the point where his ideas can be fully carried out, but the design concepts are sound D.-J Colladon demonstrates that a curved jet ofwater can guide light

The laying of the fust transatlantic telegraph cable It only lasted a few days

Thomas Young describes and demonstrates wave properties of light

John Tyndall duplicates Colladon's light-guiding principles

The first transcontinental telegraph line is built in a record four months At the line's completion

in October, the Pony Express ceased operations

P Reis demonstrates the transmission of tones through wire See telephone history

The laying ofthe first successful installation of a transatlantic telegraph cable, thus revolutioniz-ing communications Previously, sea voyages of two or three months were necessary to 'trans-mit' overseas messages

A Loomis demonstrates essential basics of wireless radio wave transmissions

James Clerk-Maxwell publishes an important paper on electromagnetic wave theories

Elisha Gray submits a caveat to the U.S patent office after Alexander Graham Bell submits a patent for the 'harmonic telegraph,' the forerunnertothe telephone

A Graham Bell reports having spoken intelligibly over wires to his assistant, Watson

Public telephones make their commercial debut in Connecticut

The first telephone exchange is established in London

American Telephone & Telegraph is founded based on the technology in the Bell patents, later to

be known as AT&T The telephone infrastructure is gradually put in place

Almon B Strowger invents the automatic telephone switching system so subscribers can dial the desired number, rather than depending upon a human operator to connect a call

1822

1826

1834

1841

1848

1850s

1854

1861

Essential Concepts and Evolution of Fiber Optic Technologies, cont.

1904

1947

1949

1980s

1880 Bell and Tainter invent the Photophone, communication through light

1880s Charles Vernon Boys uses quartz fibers to study values for the gravitational constant

1900 Max Planck states quantum theory and Planck's constant is expressed

1900s Einstein builds upon the quantum theory foundation established by Planck and describes the

par-ticle nature of light and the photoelectric effect

Fleming releases the two-element Fleming tube, which leads to de Forest's development of the three-element tube, the Audion

Lee de Forest invents the Audion leading to the evolution ofthree or more element vacuum tubes that revolutionize the electronics industry R A Fessenden broadcasts the frrst voice and music broadcasts, using an Alexanderson alternator to supply the power

Albert Einstein publishes a paper on the special theory ofrelativity

Bell Laboratories begins transmitting picture phone images

Various types of facsimile transmissions are implemented by different inventors

John Logie Baird carries out pioneer television broadcasting experiments Hansell works with Baird and investigates the use of fiber for transmitting broadcast images

Scheduled television broadcasts are begun by station WGY in New York state

Bell Laboratories develops pioneer color television technologies

V Bush's idea for a difference analyzer is constructed at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechno1-ogy(MIT)

H Lamm creates an aligned bundle of optical fibers but distance was limited

Konrad Zuse applies for a patent for 'mechanical memory' in connection with his historic calcu-lating computer devices

John Atanasoff conceives the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)

Howard Aiken teams up withmMto produce the Harvard Mark 1, which became operational six years later

Bell Laboratories scientists invent the transistor The age of vacuum tube calculators and com-puting machines nears an end as the solid-state electronics age is born

Edmund C Berkeley authorsGiant Brains or Machines That Think describing the construction

of a 'personal computer.' He designed and built Simon, GENIAC, and many robots

Hansen, van Heel, Hopkins, Hirschowitz, Curtiss, Kapani,0 'Brien, and Hicks, and others de-velop lightguides leading to more practical optical fibers

Scientists Dicke, Townes, Schawlow, and others develop laser technology See laser history Bell Telephone demonstrates Picturephone technology to the Institute of Radio Engineers The Russian Sputnik communications satellite is launched into orbit

The capabilities of fibers and lasers come together and now the industry rocks and rolls with Werts, Kao, Roberts, Shaver, and others developing practical embodiments of fiber lightguides The earliest desktop computers predating the Altair begin to emerge but don't sell well

The concept and design of the ARPANET are born

The ARPANET is put into operation

Coming is at the forefront of many of the new fiber fabrication and commercial technologies Bell Labs creates fiber processes and improves the speed and distance capabilities of fibet Many private and university labs become involved in fiber optics R&D

The Canadian ANIK satellite becomes the first domestic television broadcast communications The Altair becomes the first desktop computer to be commercially successful, launching the mi-crocomputer age IMSAI, Apple, TRS-80, and other computers follow in rapid succession The evolution of lasers, fiber lightguides and more powerful compact computers makes it pos-sible to develop cost-effective light-based telephone and data communications networks Fiber doping research and applications are developed to improve fiber conducting properties Fiber-based transatlantic cables are installed and the phone system begins to evolve into fiber for backbonetrunklines

T Berners-Lee develops Enquire hyptertext system

The ARPANET is split into Milnet and ARPANET, the precursor to the Internet

T Berners-Lee develops a Web browser, the World Wide Web is born Everyone gets online The ARPANET is officially discontinued as the Internet is born

Fiber begins to become an important aspect of computer networks, with protocols and faster/ longer technologies developed Speed and distance barriers are overcome almost monthly Federico Capasso et al make significant contributions to quantum well theory/applications Lene Hau, a Harvard physicist, stops light and releases it again at full energy

Fiber begins to reach the curb and local area networks begin deploying fiber Fiber has arrived

1905

1920s

1937

1937

1972

1974

1930

1936

1967

1969

1970s

1950s

1950s

1956

1957

1960s

1927

1928

1930

1980

1983

1989

1990

1990s

1999

2000s