Encyclopedia Of Animal Science - R docx

Female emus and rheas are larger than males, but the male ostrich is the largest.[1] All extant ratites are endemic to the Southern Hemi-sphere, whereas their ancestors were found in bot

Ratites: Biology, Housing, and Management

Dominique Blache

Graeme B Martin

Irek Malecki

The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia

INTRODUCTION

The large flightless ostrich, emu, cassowary, and rhea, and

the small flightless kiwi, compose the ratite family The

emu, ostrich, and rhea have been used in farming systems

in which their biology influences management and

housing Ratite farming is in its infancy and requires

further research and development to overcome inherent

constraints before each species can reach its full

productive potential

BIOLOGY OF RATITES

The flat, raftlike (ratis) sternum provided the name for the

family There is no keel and the pectoral muscles are

absent or vestigial In all except rheas, the body feathers

lack barbicels, so the plumage is loose and fluffy The

feathers of the emu have two shafts The rhea and the

ostrich have longer wings than the emu and they use them

during elaborate displays (Fig 1) Female emus and rheas

are larger than males, but the male ostrich is the largest.[1]

All extant ratites are endemic to the Southern

Hemi-sphere, whereas their ancestors were found in both

hemi-spheres.[1] The ostrich, emu, and rhea are found in

temperate and Mediterranean regions, but can survive in a

wide range of climates.[1,2]

The ratites have very strong legs and their muscles

have a specific distribution and physiology due to the

mechanic constraints of bipedal locomotion Ratites

walk most of the day and can run at considerable speed

(Table 1) They are nomadic and follow food availability,

but are territorial during the breeding season Ratites can

also crouch, a posture between standing and sitting

(Fig 1) The females lay eggs in this position.[1,2]

Vigilant ratites stand with the neck stretched upward;

their heads are very mobile and can turn almost 360

degrees Vision is believed to be very efficient because of

the elevated position of the eyes and also because of

acuity Thus, they are able to see and detect from long

distances (few kilometers) Ratites are not active at night

and spend most of the dark phase lying

Rheas, emus, and ostriches can be found in groups of

30 or more, but also in smaller family groups Ratites are very defensive when eggs or young chicks are present Agonistic behaviors include vocalizations, body postures, and eventual charging

The reproductive biology of ratites presents some unique features The males have a large penile organ that erects from the cloaca and penetrates the female’s cloaca during copulation In females, sperm storage tubules in the reproductive tract allow the female to remain fertile for several days after copulation.[3] The mating system varies between species In the wild, male ostriches and rheas form harems, but also copulate with females from other groups, whereas emus form pairs that are stable during the mating period.[1,4] Courtship is based on vocalizations and displays or postures from both sexes (Fig 1) Ostriches reproduce during summer, but rheas and emus reproduce mainly during winter Photoperiod is essential for the emu,[5] but is not that critical for the other ratites because, when nutrition is not limited, they breed at anytime.[1] Ratites nest on the ground in very simple nests (Fig 1) Females lay large eggs at 2 3 day intervals The total number of eggs laid by one female varies between species and individuals (Table 1) The number of eggs laid over a season seems to be strongly influenced by the level of fat reserves and nutrition of the female before the start of the laying period With the exception of the ostrich, male ratites are solely responsible for incubating the clutch and raising the young (Fig 1) Female emus leave their partner during incubation and mate with other males Ratite chicks are precocious and the nest is usually abandoned within 48 h after hatching.[1]

The digestive system is simple and in most respects similar to that of other plant-eating birds, but ratites also consume insects and small animals.[1,2,6]The esophagus is mobile and expandable and ratites swallow their food whole The crop is absent in all ratites, but the structure of the stomach varies among species.[6]Their appetite varies dramatically between the breeding and the nonbreeding seasons, leading to large variations in body weight, mostly due to variation in fat reserves

DOI: 10.1081/E EAS 120019782

Copyright D 2005 by Marcel Dekker, Inc All rights reserved.

HOUSING AND MANAGEMENT OF RATITES

The allocation of space to farmed birds varies with their

age and reproductive status (Table 2) Only young chicks

need access to an indoor pen Feeding recommendations

for ratites are not as precise as those for commercial poultry Nutrient requirements are based on restricted data for ostriches and emus,[2,6]and there are no published data for rheas (Table 2) Feedstuffs of plant origin are the main constituent of the diet and, because of the requirement of

Table 1 Ratite biology

a

Only present subspecies.

b

Breeding season in ostriches varies regionally in Africa and is influenced by rain and food availability.

c

Number of eggs found in one nest.

d

Incubation under natural conditions.

e

SD short day breeder, LD long day breeder.

(Data from author’s observations and Ref 1.)

Fig 1 Clockwise from the top left corner Male ostrich with his harem; one female is incubating Male ostrich displaying courtship Male emu displaying courtship (View this art in color at www.dekker.com.)

these large birds, a large amount of protein has to be

included Most farmed ratites are fed a pelleted diet of

crushed grain and other nutrients, formulated according to

age and reproductive status.[2,6,7] Usually, the diet of

females is richer in energy and protein during the breeding

season than during the nonbreeding season However, this

strategy might not be best considering that, naturally, the

birds decrease their intake during the breeding season and

replenish their reserves during the nonbreeding season In

emus, feed intake is controlled by photoperiod and

increases dramatically, by at least 150% (up to 2 kg/

day/bird), when the breeding season ends, allowing them

to recover, within two weeks, most of the weight lost over

the breeding season.[8]

Breeding management differs between countries and

farms, but the relative advantages of the different

strate-gies have not been compared scientifically Ostriches

are kept in pairs, trios (one male for two females), or

colonies.[2]Emus can breed in pairs or in groups Rheas are

bred in groups because of their need for harem formation

Breeding birds are given more space because of the

possibility of fighting Reproductive failure can be due to behavioural problems, such as lack of pair formation Eggs are usually collected and artificially incubated

to avoid the assembly of a clutch because the males become sexually inactive as they incubate Eggs need to

be cleaned and dried before being set into incubators Damaged, under- and oversized eggs should be dis-carded Storage of eggs before incubation simplifies hatchery management because it allows batch hatching Optimal conditions for artificial incubation are known (Table 2).[2,6,7]Candling of ratite eggs is possible using commercially available devices Recommendations for hatching conditions are not scientifically proven (Table 2), but the eggs are usually transferred to the hatcher a few days before hatch date because pipping starts 36 hours prior to hatching

Sexual maturity is reached at 18 20 months for os-triches and emus and after 24 months for rheas (Table 2) Vent sexing can be successfully carried out within days after hatching with an accuracy of around 85%

RATITE PRODUCTION

Farming of ratites has great potential that has been exploited most often in the countries of origin of the species Slaughter age is around 12 16 months for emus, 10 12 months for ostriches, and 18 20 months for rheas Methods and regulations for slaughter are already in place in each country, but more development is needed to decrease the cost of slaughtering, especially plucking methods The products are all high quality: soft leather, meat with low-fat and high-iron content, and a fine oil that can be used as a cosmetic base for the administration of topical medicines and as an anti-inflammatory agent, a claim already supported by clinical trials for emu oil Ostrich feathers have been successfully marketed in the past as a fashion item but this market has virtually disappeared The meat market is still small and in need of more marketing for further expansion There is also a need for more scientific input into management and genetic selection to improve productivity and product quality Recent developments of sperm collection and preserva-tion, and artificial insemination techniques specific to both ostrich and emus, provide the industry with major tools for modern methods of selection.[9]

CONCLUSION

Ratites are scientifically interesting because of their unique biological characteristics Those same character-istics offer a unique opportunity to develop an alternative industry that might have less environmental impact than

Table 2 Housing conditions and management of farmed emus

and ostriches

Space allocation (m2/bird)a

Chicks (0 12 weeks) indoor pen 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

Chicks (0 12 weeks) outdoor pen 0.30 0.50

Breeders (>24 months)

Maintenance requirement

Incubation

Air quality (% O2, % CO2) 21, 0.05 21, 0.05

Rotation of the eggs

Hatching

Space allocations vary according to feeding methods.

a

Based on regulations and practices used by the industry.

b

Based on nitrogen requirement of poultry.

traditional, imported animal industries These industries

exist, but still need a large amount of research and

devel-opment before they will be successful because ratites are

not simply bigger versions of common poultry and cannot

be treated as such.[10]

REFERENCES

1 Davies, S.J.J.F Ratites and Tinamous: Tinamidae, Rhe

idae, Dromaiidae, Casuariidae, Apterygidae, Struthioni

dae; Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2002

2 Deeming, D.C The Ostrich: Biology, Production and

Health; CAB International: Wallingford, UK, 1999

3 Malecki, I.; Martin, G.B Fertile period and clutch size in

the Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) Emu 2002, 102,

165 170

4 Blache, D.; Barrett, C.D.; Martin, G.B Social mating

system and sexual behaviour in the emu, Dromaius

novaehollandiae Emu 2000, 100, 161 168

5 Blache, D.; Talbot, R.T.; Blackberry, M.A.; Williams, K.M.; Martin, G.B.; Sharp, P.J Photoperiodic control of the secretion of luteinizing hormone, prolactin and testosterone in the male emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae),

a bird that breeds on short days J Neuroendocrinol 2001,

13, 998 1006

6 Tully, T.N.; Shane, S.M Ratite: Management, Medicine and Surgery; Krieger: Malabar, 1996

7 Deeming, D.C Improving Our Understanding of Ratites in

a Farming Environment; Ratite Conference: Manchester,

UK, 1996

8 Blache, D.; Martin, G.B Day length affects feeding behaviour and food intake in adult male emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) Br Poult Sci 1999, 40, 573 578

9 Malecki, I.A.; Martin, G.B.; Lindsay, D.R Semen production by the male emu (Dromaius novohollandiae)

1 Methods for collection of semen Poult Sci 1996, 76,

615 621

10 Malecki, I.; Blache, D.; Martin, G Emu biology and farming Developing management strategies for a valu able resource Land Management October 2001, 20 21

Ratites: Nutrition Management

James Sales

University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, U.S.A

INTRODUCTION

Ratites (order Struthioniformes) are flightless birds with a

raftlike breastbone devoid of a keel, and can be classified

into the families Struthionidae (ostriches), Dromiceiidae

(emus), Rheidae (rheas), Casuariidae (cassowaries), and

Apterygidae (kiwis)

DIGESTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

Despite their similarities to other birds, ratites have

developed unique characteristics, such as modifications in

the gastrointestinal tract, in order to survive in their

natural habitat.[1]Ratites do not have teeth or a crop (the

feed storage organ in other avian species) Ostriches,

emus, and rheas could be considered monogastric

her-bivores, which means they are simple-stomached animals

that have developed the ability to utilize forage Whereas

fiber fermentation appears to take place in the large

intestine (colon) of the ostrich, the distal ileum serves as a

fermentation organ in the emu The most distinctive

char-acteristic of the gastrointestinal tract of the rhea is the

relatively large cecum (Table 1)

RATITE DIETS

Many different diets have been utilized in commercial

ostrich production, varying from single ingredients such as

alfalfa, to compound diets with several ingredients

including vitamin/mineral mixtures, since the

domestica-tion of the ostrich as a farm animal around 1865 in South

Africa.[2]The first book on ostrich feeds and feeding was

already published in 1913 by Dowsley and Gardner.[3]

Reliance on compound, commercial, manufactured diets,

mostly in a pelleted form, has become the norm since the

spread of ostrich farming to countries outside South Africa

around 1990 and the recognition of emu farming as being

technically feasible in Australia in 1987.[4]At the few pilot

operations for the domestication of the rhea as a

commercial farm animal in South America, a variety of

compound pelleted diets, consisting mainly of alfalfa and

corn meal, are fed.[5]

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS

The inaccuracy of earlier extrapolation of nutrient requirement specifications for poultry to ostriches and emus soon became evident from various nutrition-related problems encountered by commercial ratite farmers.[6] Studies by Cilliers[7]and O’Malley[4]revealed significant information on the energy and amino acid requirements of these two species (Tables 2 and 3)

It is evident that different diets, each with different nutrient concentrations, have to be fed at different stages

of the life cycle; for example, a starter diet up to three months of age, a grower diet till slaughter age, and a breeder diet for breeder birds

Mineral Requirements

Currently, dietary mineral, as vitamin, specifications for ratites are based on suggestions A major problem in ostrich feeding is that calcium is very often overfed, with the result of depressed uptake of zinc and manganese Although a total dietary calcium concentra-tion of 2.0 to 2.5% is recommended for ostrich layers in intensive production systems, excellent laying and fertility results have been achieved with dietary calcium levels as low as 1.6% on a dry matter basis.[8] Under intensive farming conditions, leg problems seldom occur

in young ostrich chicks fed a diet with calcium levels around 1.5 to 1.6%.[9]

NUTRITION OF CHICKS

Although the rearing of young ostriches is a well-established practice, high mortalities are often encoun-tered.[9]Ostrich feed and water should be available from day one after hatch A chopped fresh alfalfa or grass topping on feed will stimulate chicks to start eating It was also found in rhea chicks[10] that the first few chicks required frequent stimulation, for example, by poking with

a finger or pencil at the food, to induce proper feeding Many ostrich producers supplement the starter diet or water of the newly hatched ostrich with a booster pack containing: 1) electrolytes that will ensure that the correct

DOI: 10.1081/E EAS 120019784

Copyright D 2005 by Marcel Dekker, Inc All rights reserved.

ratio of sodium to potassium will be consumed and that the

absorption of moisture will be normal during these early

stages of life; 2) acidification substances that will lower

the pH of the digestive tract and enhance its adaptation to

high-protein starter diets; 3) amylase, protease, and

cellulase enzymes to ensure more efficient digestion

of starch, protein, and fiber; and 4) vitamins A, D, E,

and B complex to ensure immunity against infections and

other diseases.[8]It is well known that ostrich chicks have

poor resistance against infectious and other diseases The

supplementation of any product, for example, yogurt, that might stimulate immunity is highly recommended

CONCLUSION

Ratites are unique in that they resemble the characteristics

of avian species with nutritional adaptations similar to that of ruminants Despite studies on ratites that enable the modeling of energy and amino acid requirements, dietary

Table 2 Estimated dry matter intake (DMI),aenergy (TMEn), and protein and amino acid requirements for maintenance and growth

of African black ostriches

AGE

(Days)

LW

(kg)

ADG (g/b/d)

DMI (g/b/d)

TMEn

(MJ/kg DMI)

Prot (g/kg DMI)

Amino acids (g/kg DMI)

LW live weight; ADG average daily gain; DMI dry matter intake; TME n true metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen retention; Prot protein; Lys lysine; Met methionine; Cys cystein; Arg arginine; Thr threonine; Val valine; Isoleu isoleucine; Leu leucine; His histidine; Phe phe nylalanine; Tyr tyrosine.

a Based on a diet with a TME n (ostrich) content of 11.25 MJ/kg.

b In calculating TME n requirements from results obtained for seven month old birds, similar energy contents were assumed for younger birds This assuption is incorrect, resulting in an overestimation of dietary energy requirements.

(From Ref 7.)

Table 1 Comparison of the digestive tract of ostriches, emus, and rheas

Region

(From Ref 1.)

recommendations on minerals and other nutrients are still

based on data from other avian species Different dietary

nutrient concentrations are needed through the successive

stages of the life cycle Low immunity in the digestive

system of the ratite chick until the age of three months is

one of the reasons for high mortalities

Of the commercial ratite species (ostriches, emus,

rheas), nutritional research has mainly concentrated on the

ostrich Due to similarities in the digestive system,

information obtained with ostriches could probably be

extrapolated to the rhea, the least studied species

REFERENCES

1 Angel, C.R A review of ratite nutrition Anim Feed Sci

Technol 1996, 60, 241 246

2 Drenowatz, C.; Sales, J.; Sarasqueta, D.V.; Weilbrenner, A

History & Geography In Ratite Encyclopedia; Drenowatz,

C., Ed.; Ratite Records, Inc.: San Antonio, TX, USA, 1995;

3 29

3 Dowsley, W.G.; Gardner, C Ostrich Foods and Feed

ing; Crocott & Sherry: Grahamstown, South Africa,

1913

4 O’Malley, P.J An Estimate of the Nutritional Require ments of Emus In Improving Our Understanding of Ratites in a Farming Environment; Deeming, D.C., Ed.; Ratite Conference: Oxfordshire, UK, 1996; 92 108

5 Sales, J.; Navarro, J.L.; Bellis, L.; Manero, A.; Lizurume, M.; Martella, M.B Carcass and component yields of rheas

Br Poult Sci 1997, 38, 378 380

6 Cilliers, S.C.; Angel, C.R Basic Concepts and Recent Advances in Digestion and Nutrition In The Ostrich: Biology, Production and Health; Deeming, D.C., Ed.; CAB International: Wallingford, Oxon, U.K., 1999; 105 128

7 Cilliers, S.C Feedstuffs Evaluation in Ostriches (Struthio camelus) Ph.D Thesis; University of Stellenbosch: South Africa, 1995

8 Smith, W.A.; Sales, J Feeding and Feed Management

In Practical Guide for Ostrich Management and Ostrich Products; Smith, W.A., Ed.; An Alltech Inc Publica tion, University of Stellenbosch Publishers: Stellen bosch, South Africa, 1995; 8 19

9 Verwoerd, D.J.; Deeming, D.C.; Angel, C.R.; Perelman,

B Rearing Environments Around the World In The Ostrich: Biology, Production and Health; Deeming, D.C., Ed.; CAB International: Wallingford, Oxon, U.K., 1999; 191 216

10 Kruczek, R Breeding Darwin’s rheas at Brookfield Zoo Chicago Int Zoo Yearb 1968, 8, 150 153

Table 3 Estimated dry matter intake (DMI),aand protein and amino acid requirements for maintenance and growth of emus

AGE

(Weeks)

LW

(kg)

ADG (g/b/d)

DMI (g/b/d)

Prot (g/kg DMI)

Amino acids (g/kg DMI)

LW live weight; ADG average daily gain; DMI dry matter intake; TME n true metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen retention; Prot protein; Lys lysine; Met methionine; Cys cystein; Thr threonine; Isoleu isoleucine; Leu leucine.

a Based on a diet with gross energy content of 11.5 MJ.

(From Ref 4.)

Religious Foods: Jewish and Muslim Laws

for Animal Slaughter/Welfare

Joe M Regenstein

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A

Carrie E Regenstein

University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.A

Muhammad M Chaudry

Islamic Food and Nutrition Council, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A

INTRODUCTION

The kosher dietary laws determine which foods are fit or

proper for consumption by Jewish consumers who observe

these laws The halal dietary laws determine which foods

are lawful or permitted for Muslims The kosher and halal

dietary laws both deal extensively with animal issues

More details about these laws and the additional

require-ments not covered in this article can be found in other

sources.[1–7]

KOSHER DIETARY LAWS

Allowed Animals and the

Prohibition of Blood

Ruminants with split hoofs that chew their cud, the

traditional domestic birds, fish with fins and removable

scales, and a few grasshoppers are generally permitted

Everything else is prohibited

Ruminants and fowl must be slaughtered according to

Jewish law by a specially trained religious slaughterer

using a special knife that is very straight, very sharp, and

at least twice the neck diameter in length These animals

are subsequently inspected for various defects In the

United States, a stricter inspection requirement requires

smooth lungs (Glatt), i.e., less than two perforations or

adhesions The meat and poultry must be further prepared

by properly removing certain veins, arteries, prohibited

fats, blood, and the sciatic nerve Therefore, only the front

quarter cuts of red meat are generally used To remove

more blood, red meat and poultry are soaked and salted

within a specified time period All animal ingredients for

kosher production must come from kosher-slaughtered

animals Thus, fats or oils used for kosher products are

mostly obtained from plant sources

Prohibition of Mixing Milk and Meat

‘‘Thou shalt not seeth the kid in its mother’s milk’’ appears three times in the Torah (the first five books of the Holy Scriptures) and is therefore considered a very serious admonition Meat has been rabbinically extended to include poultry Dairy includes all milk derivatives

To keep meat and milk separate requires that the processing and handling of all food products and production equipment that are kosher fall into one of three categories: meat, dairy, or pareve (neutral) Pareve includes all plant products plus eggs, fish, honey, and lac resin (shellac) Pareve foods can be used with either meat or dairy, except that fish cannot be mixed directly with meat Some kosher supervision agencies do permit products without meat but made on meat equip-ment to be listed as ‘‘meat equipequip-ment (M.E.).’’

Equipment Koshering

There are three ways to make equipment kosher and/or

to change its status Which procedure is required de-pends on the equipment’s prior production history Converting pareve equipment to use for meat or dairy does not require kosherization The first and simplest equipment kosherization occurs with equipment made from materials that have only been handled cold These require a good caustic/soap cleaning However, materials such as ceramics, rubber, earthenware, and porcelain cannot be koshered

Heating above 120°F is usually defined rabbinically as cooking To kosher these items, the second form of equipment kosherization requires that the equipment be thoroughly cleaned with caustic/soap The equipment must be left idle for 24 hours and then flooded with boiling water in the presence of a kosher supervisor For ovens or other equipment that use fire, the third form of

DOI: 10.1081/E EAS 120021146 Copyright D 2005 by Marcel Dekker, Inc All rights reserved.

equipment kosherization involves heating the metal until

it glows with the rabbi present

HALAL DIETARY LAWS

Prohibited and Permitted Animals;

Prohibition of Blood

Meat of pigs is strictly prohibited, and so are carnivorous

animals and birds of prey Some of the animal and birds

are permitted only under special circumstances, e.g.,

horsemeat may be allowed under certain distressing

conditions Animals fed unclean or filthy feed, e.g.,

sewage or tankage protein, must be fed clean feed for

three to 40 days before slaughter Eggs and milk must

come from permitted animals According to Quran, blood

that pours forth is prohibited from being consumed

whether from permitted or nonpermitted animals and

any derivatives

For seafood, some groups accept only fish with scales

as halal, while others consider everything that lives in

water, all or some of the time, as halal Animals that live

both in water and on land (e.g., amphibians) are not

consumed by most Muslims

The status of insects is unclear, except that locust

is specifically mentioned as halal The use of honey

was very highly recommended by Prophet Muhammad

Other insect products are generally acceptable; however,

some consider shellac and carmine makrooh offensive to

their psyche

Proper Slaughtering of Permitted Animals

There are special requirements for slaughtering the

animal It must be a halal species slaughter by a sane,

adult Muslim with the name of Allah pronounced at

slaughter The throat is cut in a manner that induces

rapid and complete bleeding, resulting in quick death

Generally, at least three of the four passages, i.e.,

carotids, jugulars, trachea, and esophagus, must be cut

to give zabiha or dhabiha meat (meat acceptable for

Muslim consumption)

Although kosher meat is similarly slaughtered, a prayer

is not said over each animal Thus, most Muslim scholars

do not accept kosher meat as halal In the absence of halal

meats, individual Muslims may choose to purchase kosher

meat products

Islam places great emphasis on humane treatment of

animals, especially before and during slaughter Some

conditions include giving the animal proper rest and

water, avoiding or reducing stress, not sharpening knives

in front of animals, and using a very sharp knife The

animal may only be dismembered after the blood is drained completely and the animal is lifeless Animal-derived food ingredients must be made from Muslim-slaughtered halal animals

Hunting of wild halal animals is permitted for the purpose of eating, but not for pleasure Allah’s name should be pronounced when ejecting the tool rather than when catching the hunt On catching, the animal must immediately be bled by slitting the throat If the blessing

is made at the time of pulling the trigger or shooting an arrow and the hunted animal dies before the hunter reaches it, it would still be halal as long as slaughter is performed and some blood comes out Fish and seafood may be hunted or caught by any reasonable means available as long as it is done humanely

The requirements of proper slaughtering and bleeding are applicable to land animals and birds Fish and other water creatures need not be ritually slaughtered Similarly, there is no special method of killing locust

The meat of animals that die of natural causes, diseases, from being gored by other animals, by being strangled, by falling from a height, through beating, or killed by wild beasts, is unlawful to be eaten, unless such animals are slaughtered before they become lifeless Fish that dies of itself, if floating on water or lying on shore, is halal as long as it shows no signs of decay or deterioration

An animal must not be slaughtered in dedication to other than Allah, or immolated to anyone other than Allah under any circumstances

GELATIN

Gelatin is probably the most controversial kosher and halal ingredient Gelatin can be derived from pork skin, beef bones, or beef skin along with fish skin and bones Currently available gelatins even if called kosher are not acceptable to the mainstream kosher supervision organizations or to halal consumers However, limited kosher hide gelatin is available Similarly, at least two sources of certified halal gelatin are available

BIOTECHNOLOGY

Rabbis and Islamic scholars currently accept products made by simple genetic engineering, e.g., chymosin (rennin) used in cheese making The production con-ditions in the fermenters must still be kosher or halal, i.e., the ingredients and the fermenter, and any subsequent processing must use kosher or halal equipment and ingredients of the appropriate status A product produced

in a dairy medium would be dairy Mainstream rabbis may

approve porcine lipase made through biotechnology when

it becomes available, if all the other conditions are kosher

The Muslim community is still considering the issue of

products with a porcine gene; although a final ruling has

not been announced, the leaning seems to be toward

rejecting such materials If the gene for a porcine-derived

product were synthesized, i.e., it did not come directly

from the pig, Muslim leaders are prepared to accept it The

religious leaders of both communities have not yet

determined the status of more complex genetic

manipu-lations and, therefore, such a discussion is premature

ANIMAL WELFARE

In the United States, the Food Marketing Institute

(representing the major supermarkets) and the National

Council of Chain Restaurants (in conjunction with the

production agriculture trade associations) has undertaken

to develop a set of minimal animal welfare standards As

part of that process, a kosher/halal standard and audit

requirements have been developed, based on the

Amer-ican Meat Institute’s requirement for upright slaughter.[8]

In addition, the Northeast Sheep and Goat Program at

Cornell University has developed a low-cost, upright

holding pen for small animals, and has identified a

commercial knife appropriate for halal slaughter The

Cornell program is currently developing a poster on

on-farm humane/halal slaughter that will be available in a

number of different languages (e.g., English, Arabic,

Persian, Spanish)

CONCLUSION

As consumers continue to refine their food requirements, more companies may well choose to provide kosher and halal food products in the marketplace

REFERENCES

1 Chaudry, M.M Islamic food laws: Philosophical basis and practical implications Food Technol 1992, 6 (10), 92

2 Chaudry, M.M.; Regenstein, J.M Implications of bio technology and genetic engineering for kosher and halal foods Trends Food Sci Technol 1994, 5, 165 168

3 Chaudry, M.M.; Regenstein, J.M Muslim dietary laws: Food processing and marketing Enc Food Sci 2000,

1682 1684

4 Regenstein, J.M Health aspects of kosher foods Activ Rep Min Work Groups Sub work Groups R & D Assoc

1994, 46 (1), 77 83

5 Regenstein, J.M.; Regenstein, C.E An introduction to the kosher (dietary) laws for food scientists and food processors Food Technol 1979, 33 (1), 89 99

6 Regenstein, J.M.; Regenstein, C.E The kosher dietary laws and their implementation in the food industry Food Technol 1988, 42 (6), 86, 88 94

7 Regenstein, J.M.; Regenstein, C.E Kosher foods and food processing Enc Food Sci 2000, 1449 1453

8 Regenstein, J.M.; Grandin, T Animal welfare Kosher and halal Inst Food Technol Relig Ethnic Foods Div Newsl

2002, 5 (1), 3 16