Our analyses were designed toanswer two questions: 1 do reports of work-life effectiveness varyacross cultural contexts, and 2 is the use of flextime and flex-place associated with great
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Performance orientation is the extent to which society ages and rewards group members for performance improvementand excellence (House et al., 1999) Societies high in perfor-mance orientation value training and development, expect directand explicit communication, and value what one does more thanwho one is Countries high in performance orientation includeSwitzerland, Singapore, and Hong Kong, and countries that scorelow on this dimension include Venezuela, Greece, and Russia.The United States scores relatively high on this dimension
encour-In the following section we report the results of analyses thatexamine work-life effectiveness across cultural dimensions and
by use of flexplace and flextime Our analyses were designed toanswer two questions: (1) do reports of work-life effectiveness varyacross cultural contexts, and (2) is the use of flextime and flex-place associated with greater work-life effectiveness within specificcultural contexts (for example, high versus low collectivism)
Investigation of Flexibility Use at Procter & Gamble
Participants were 24,327 managers employed by Procter & ble in 50 countries throughout the globe The majority were male(57.7%) and were low- to mid-level managers (63.2%) The aver-age tenure with the organization was in the range of six to tenyears Data were collected via Procter & Gamble’s annual employeeopinion survey The majority of surveys were administered online.Participation was voluntary
Gam-Work-life effectiveness was measured with three items (‘‘When I
leave work, I continue to have energy for the things I enjoy,’’ ‘‘Myworkload keeps me from my personal/family activities more than isreasonable’’ (reverse scored), ‘‘My work environment prevents mefrom living a fit and healthy lifestyle’’ (reverse scored) Responseoptions were based on a five-point scale that ranged from stronglydisagree to strongly agree Higher scores represent greater work-life effectiveness Coefficient alpha was 62
Cultural values were not measured explicitly; rather, the values
obtained for each country by Project GLOBE (House et al.,2004) were imputed based on participants’ reported country ofemployment Project GLOBE sampled middle managers from 951organizations in 62 countries to create country-level assessments
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of several cultural dimensions Cultural values were based onProject GLOBE’s societal practices (‘‘as is’’) ratings rather than
on societal ideal values (‘‘should be’’)
Gender egalitarianism mean country scores ranged from 2.50 to
4.08 (M=3.36, SD=.34) Higher scores indicate greater genderequality Project GLOBE created the gender egalitarianism indexfrom a multi-item scale Emrich et al (2004) provide detailedinformation regarding scale development and scoring
Humane orientation mean country scores ranged from 3.29 to
5.12 (M=4.05, SD=.38), with higher scores representing strongerhumane orientation The initial scale used to obtain mean scores
in Project GLOBE included five questions that assessed thedegree to which individuals in a society are concerned, sensi-tive toward others, friendly, tolerant of mistakes, and generous.Kabasakal and Bodur (2004) provide a detailed description ofscale development
Collectivism was imputed from Project GLOBE’s in-group
col-lectivism measure Scores ranged from 3.53 to 5.92 (M=4.67,SD=.66), and higher scores indicated greater collectivism Theinitial scale used to obtain mean scores in Project GLOBEincluded four questions that assessed the degree to which indi-viduals express pride, loyalty, and interdependence in theirfamilies Detailed information regarding the Project GLOBE scaledevelopment can be found in Gelfand, Bkawuk, Nishii, and Bech-told (2004)
Performance orientation mean country scores ranged from 3.20 to
4.90 (M=4.27, SD=.34) The original measure was based on threeitems relating to current societal practices regarding innovation,improvement, and reward systems Further scale information can
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For countries that include within-country sectors with vastcultural differences (Switzerland, South Africa, and Germany),Project GLOBE reported multiple mean scores In the presentstudy, we were not able to determine which part of the countryparticipants were from, and thus could not code cultural valuesaccording to these factors Instead, when the multiple mean scoresfrom one country were in the same band, we used the average
of the two scores If the mean scores were in different bands, weexcluded the country from that particular analysis
Findings
Gender egalitarianism (GE) As shown in Table 13.1, means for
work-life effectiveness WLE ranged from a low of 2.72 to a high
of 3.23 across the different GE bands Individuals in moderate GEcountries reported the greatest WLE Those in low GE countries(represented solely by South Korea in our sample) reported theleast WLE
As shown in Table 13.2, when taking FWA use into account,the means ranged from a low of 2.63 to a high of 3.29 Flextimeuse versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE only for those
in high GE countries Flexplace use versus nonuse was associatedwith greater WLE for those in high and medium GE countries.However, it is important to note that there are differences instatistical power across the various bands For example, the meandifference for use versus nonuse of flexplace in the low GE band
is 32, but not statistically significant The mean difference for useversus nonuse of flexplace in the medium GE band is only 06but statistically significant due to greater statistical power withinthat band
Humane orientation (HO) See Tables 13.3 and 13.4 As shown
in Table 13.3, means for WLE ranged from a low of 3.05 to a high
of 3.27 across the different HO bands Individuals in medium-low
HO countries reported the highest level of WLE There were nosignificant differences between the other clusters
As shown in Table 13.4, when taking FWA into account, meansranged from a low of 2.96 to a high of 3.35 Flextime use versusnonuse was associated with greater WLE by individuals in highand in low HO countries No significant differences emerged
Trang 4Hungary Russia Poland Slovenia Kazakhstan Albania
Latin America
Mexico Venezuela Costa Rica Argentina
North America
Canada
Western Europe
Denmark Sweden England Portugal France Netherlands Greece
Asia
Australia Thailand Indonesia New Zealand Japan Taiwan China India
CEEMEA
Israel Nigeria Turkey Morocco Egypt
Latin America
Brazil Ecuador Guatemala
North America
United States
Western Europe
Switzerland Finland Italy Ireland Germany Austria Spain
Trang 6Albania Morocco
Latin America
Ecuador Costa Rica Venezuela
CEEMEA
Nigeria Israel Kazakhstan Turkey Russia Slovenia
Latin America
Argentina Mexico Guatemala Colombia Brazil
North America
U.S.
Western Europe
Sweden Finland Switzerland Portugal Netherlands Austria England
Asia
Singapore
CEEMEA
Poland Hungary
Western Europe
Italy Germany France Greece Spain
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Table 13.4 Mean WLE by Humane Orientation and FWA Use.
High Bands
Low Bands
between use and nonuse within medium-high and medium-low
HO countries The reverse was found with regard to flexplace.Flexplace use versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE byindividuals in medium-high and in medium-low HO countries Nosignificant differences emerged between use and nonuse withinhigh and low HO countries
Collectivism As shown in Table 13.5, means for WLE ranged
from a low of 2.97 to a high of 3.33 across the collectivism bands.Individuals in low collectivism countries reported the greatestWLE whereas individuals in low collectivism countries reportedthe least WLE
As shown in Table 13.6, when taking FWA into account,means ranged from a low of 2.94 to a high of 3.39 Flextimeuse versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE at all levels
Trang 8Kazakhstan Hungary South Africa Israel
Latin America
Brazil Costa Rica
Western Europe
Greece Ireland Italy Austria France
Asia
Australia New Zealand
North America
Canada U.S.
Western Europe
England Finland Switzerland Netherlands Sweden Denmark
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of collectivism Flexplace use versus nonuse was associated withgreater WLE in high and in collectivism countries only Therewere no significant differences between flexplace use and nonuse
in medium collectivism countries
Performance orientation (PO) As shown in Table 13.7, means
for WLE ranged from a low of 2.96 to a high of 3.29 across the
PO bands Individuals in high PO countries reported the greatestWLE Individuals in low PO countries reported the least WLE
As shown in Table 13.8, when taking FWA into account, meansranged from a low of 2.90 to a high of 3.34 Flextime use versusnonuse was associated with greater WLE in medium and in low
PO countries There were no significant differences in high POcountries Flexplace use versus nonuse was associated with greaterWLE in high and medium PO countries There were no significantdifferences in low PO countries
Practical Implications and Recommendations
Our data, based on a large sample of managers working acrossthe globe, indicate that reports of work-life effectiveness varyacross cultural contexts Gender egalitarianism was associatedwith the greatest variation in work-life effectiveness Work-lifeeffectiveness appears to suffer the most in cultural contexts marked
by low levels of gender egalitarianism However, this findingshould be considered with caution given that our data wererepresented by only one country within this band Perhaps what
is somewhat surprising is that work-life effectiveness was greater
in medium gender egalitarian countries than in high genderegalitarian countries That is, a moderate level of GE rather than
a low or a high level appears to be most highly associated withwork-life effectiveness Although highly prescribed gender rolesmay make it difficult to effectively manage work and nonwork, thefindings also suggest that highly fluid gender roles might providethe opportunity for confusion or misunderstandings with regard
to appropriate ways to manage work and nonwork
Humane orientation was associated with the least variation
in work-life effectiveness Although it might be expected thatmembers of cultures high in humane orientation would providegreater support for managing work-life challenges (Francesco, &
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Table 13.7 Mean WLE by Performance Orientation.
CEEMEA Slovenia Kazakhstan Hungary Russia Latin America Argentina Venezuela Western Europe Portugal Italy Greece
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Ying, 2009), our results showed no difference between the highand low bands and that the medium-low band was associatedwith the greatest work-life effectiveness The results regardinggender egalitarianism and humane orientation demonstrate thatthe relationship between cultural values and work-life effectivenesscannot be assumed to be linear
We did find linear patterns for collectivism and for mance orientation Greater WLE effectiveness was associated withless collectivism and with greater performance orientation Powell
perfor-et al (2009) speculated that members of collectivist cultures weremore likely to receive greater social support and therefore wouldexperience less work-family conflict In contrast, our data suggeststhat greater work-life effectiveness is reported in less collectivis-tic contexts These findings are consistent with Spector et al.(2005) who found that two countries considered more collectivis-tic (Taiwan and Hong Kong) reported the greatest work-familypressure whereas two countries considered more individualistic(United Kingdom and Australia) reported the least This may beexplained by the fact that individuals within highly collectivisticcultures typically have the burden of providing a great deal ofsocial support to others because of tight-knit kinship systems andtherefore may experience greater family demands
Greater WLE effectiveness was associated with greater mance orientation Perhaps societies with greater performanceorientation emphasize performance in all domains of life Accord-ingly, individuals within high performance orientation contextsmay learn efficiencies that help them manage both work andnonwork effectively
perfor-Multinational companies face unique challenges in developingsolutions to help individuals manage work and family Policies thatare effective within the home country of the organization may nottranslate to units based in countries outside the home country.Our results show that the use of flextime and flexplace weregenerally associated with greater work-life effectiveness Althoughnot all comparisons were significant, in no cultural context did
we find that flexible work arrangement use was associated withsignificantly less work-life effectiveness
The effectiveness of any benefit intended to be supportive may be influenced by culture-specific procedures,
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local regulations, and norms We did find some variability in theeffectiveness of FWA as a function of cultural values For example,flextime appears to be especially helpful in low performanceorientation countries In high performance orientation countries,where work-life effectiveness is already at a greater level, flextime
is not associated with greater work-life effectiveness Similarresults were found for humane orientation Flextime is especiallyhelpful under low and high levels of human orientation, but doesnot raise the level of work-life effectiveness when it is alreadygenerally at a higher rate Thus, the overall pattern of resultssuggest that flextime policies can help compensate for culturalcontexts that may make the achievement of work-life effectivenessmore difficult In terms of practical significance, flexplaceappears to have the most potential for impact within contextswhere work-life effectiveness is lower as associated with genderegalitarianism Working from home, and thus more isolated fromsociety, may temper the negative effects associated with very fluid
or very rigid gender roles
It is also interesting to note that the pattern of results did notsuggest that one form of flexibility was uniformly more effectivethan the other This is in contrast to some research that hassuggested that flextime is more effective in terms of mitigatingwork-family conflict than is flexplace (Shockley & Allen, 2007).One difference may be that the current analysis is based exclusively
on a sample of managers Perhaps individuals in managerialpositions cultivate the skills needed to be effective across work andfamily roles while working in various locations
In crafting human resource policies designed to help workingfamilies from a global perspective, local regulations and normsmay also need to be taken into consideration Family-related sup-ports provided by the government vary greatly across countries.For example, the United States is frequently criticized as laggingbehind other industrialized nations in terms of social policies(such as paid parental leave) that help individuals balance workand family (Waldfogel, 2001) However, it is interesting to notethat across every cultural value, work-life effectiveness was thehighest in the band that contained the United States In addition,the United States was the only country that consistently appeared
in the highest work-life effectiveness band across all four cultural