Occupational health a practical guide for managers_8 pptx

Siobhan Hamilton-Phillips, DPS Consultants Ltd, Newsletter, December 1993 Women account for over 44 per cent of the people in paid employment.The numbers of women with dependent children

Career development

Staff with disabilities will be given equal opportunities for training,career development and promotion We will seek to develop theskills and potential of disabled employees to the full

Health and safety

Staff with disabilities and their colleagues will be fully briefed onwhat to do in the case of fire or emergency

The normal procedure for completion of medical questionnairesand medical examinations will apply to disabled applicants It isrecognised that disability does not necessarily equate to ill health

Training and publicity

Information about our policy and practices on the employment ofpeople with disabilities will be included in the annual report

The employment of women

Unless career women organise help to handle the base camp, theyare left to do everything—their jobs, be a parent, support husbandand arrange family gatherings like Christmas

(Siobhan Hamilton-Phillips, DPS Consultants Ltd, Newsletter,

December 1993)

Women account for over 44 per cent of the people in paid employment.The numbers of women with dependent children and those remaining atwork during, and for a greater part of, their pregnancy are increasing.Legislation has been enacted making discrimination on the grounds of sexunlawful and affording protection in such matters as pay and thepromotion of equal opportunities This legislation is discussed as are theimplications for employers The chapter highlights the dilemma thrown upwhen the need to provide a safe place for work conflicts with theindividual’s right to privacy in such matters as actual or intendedpregnancy Family-friendly policies are outlined The change in the stateretirement age for women is noted against the background of precedent-making judgements in respect of pension arrangements

Introduction

There are now over 10 1/2 million women aged between 16 and 59 inpaid employment, which represents an increase of 1 1/2 million in the lastdecade Women account for over 44 per cent of those in paidemployment There has been a steady increase in the number of workingwomen who have dependent children, and the number of single mothershas also steadily increased Another trend is for women to remain atwork during, and for a greater part of, their pregnancy

As women have sought (and legislation has been enacted in the fieldof) equal opportunities, they have entered into traditionally male areas ofwork, although some 60 per cent of employed women are engaged in theclerical, educational, health and personal service sectors of the economy

In addition to general health, safety and welfare legislation there areother statutes which must be observed The Sex Discrimination Act 1975(as amended in 1986) and the Equal Pay Act 1970 are designed toremove discrimination and promote equal opportunities, while the TradeUnion Reform and Employment Rights Act 1993 affords protection forwomen employees when they are pregnant

The Equal Pay Act

The Equal Pay Act 1970 is concerned with the terms and conditions in awoman’s contract of employment, which must clearly show the rate ofremuneration she is, or is going to be, paid, and contains provisionsdesigned to ensure equality in terms of pay The Act defines threeconditions which must be met for a woman to succeed in a claim forequal pay under the arrangements provided by the Act They are:

• The male comparator must be employed at the same time

• The male comparator must be employed by the same or anassociated employer at the same establishment or at a differentestablishment belonging to the same or an associated employer,where common terms and conditions of employment are observedeither generally or for relevant classes

• The female must be engaged on like work or work rated asequivalent or work of equal value to that of the male comparator

The Sex Discrimination Act

The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (as amended in 1986) is designed toprevent unlawful discrimination against women, and against men on thesame grounds or against a married person of either sex on the grounds ofthat person’s marital status Discrimination is permitted in those specialarrangements emanating from pregnancy and childbirth

There are three types of unlawful act to consider:

• Direct discrimination, which is where a person of one sex is treated

less favourably than a person of another and the sex of that person

is the reason for the unfavourable treatment

• Indirect discrimination, which is where a person applies a

condition or requirement to another, such that the proportion of

persons of one sex who will not be able to meet that condition orrequirement is much larger than the other sex Obviously, if theemployer is able to show that the condition or requirement isjustified, irrespective of sex, no indirect discrimination will havetaken place.

• Victimisation, which arises because the person has brought

proceedings or has given evidence or information in connectionwith proceedings under the Act or the Equal Pay Act 1970 It isalso unlawful to victimise a person because the individual hasdone something in relation to either Act to any person, includingthe discriminator, or has made allegations of a contravention ofeither Act unless the allegation was false and not made in goodfaith

In the second part of the Act five types of unlawful discriminatory act arespecified and are concerned with:

• The arrangements a person makes for the purpose of determiningwho shall be employed These arrangements have to ensure that jobopportunities are available to all, irrespective of sex

• The terms on which a person offers employment to another Thereare exceptions, one of which is pay, covered by the Equal Pay Act

1970, and differences where the employer can show that these are

to do with genuine material difference between the two applicantswhich has nothing to do with their sex

• Refusing or deliberately omitting to offer employment because of aperson’s sex

• The way a person offers access to opportunities for promotion,transfer or training, or to any other benefits, facilities or services, orrefuses or deliberately omits to afford access to those opportunities

• Dismissing a person or subjecting him or her to any otherdetriment While it is obvious that if in a redundancy situation aperson is selected for dismissal by reason of sex an unlawfuldiscriminatory act has occurred, the question of detriment iscomplex If a person is being subjected to unpleasant treatment of

a sexual nature, sexual harassment, this may or may not amount to

a detriment The individual circumstances such as whether or not aperson of the other sex would have been vulnerable to the sametreatment and the degree to which there has been injury to theperson’s feelings have to be taken into account in arriving at aconclusion

The Trade Union Reform and Employment Rights Act

The Trade Union Reform and Employment Rights Act 1993 affordsindividual employment rights which include those relating to maternityleave, maternity pay and the right to return to work as well as protectionagainst unfair maternity dismissal Every woman employee is entitled to

14 weeks’ statutory maternity leave subject only to:

• giving the employer a written notice 21 days before her maternityleave period begins, stating that she is pregnant and giving theexpected week of childbirth;

• giving the employer notice again at least 21 days in advance of thedate on which she intends her maternity leave period to begin;

• producing medical evidence in the form of a certificate from aregistered medical practitioner or midwife stating the expectedweek of childbirth if the employer requests this

If an employee wishes to return to work before the end of her maternityleave period, she must give her employer at least seven days’ notice of herintended return date

If the employee intends to return to work she must include in herwritten notice of her pregnancy a statement that she intends to return towork, and she must give 21 days’ notice of return at the end of her leave.During the statutory maternity leave period the employee will be entitled

to all her contractual benefits apart from pay; a new statutory maternitypay scheme is introduced under this Act

Dismissal or selection for redundancy on pregnancy- and related grounds is automatically unfair; there are no qualifying serviceconditions and women dismissed while pregnant or during their statutorymaternity leave period will automatically be entitled to written reasonsfor dismissal Women who would otherwise be suspended from work onhealth and safety grounds have to be offered suitable alternative work Ifsuspended, they will be entitled to their normal pay

maternity-Currently, to qualify for the right to return to work up to 29 weeksafter childbirth, the employee must have worked for the employer for atleast two years at least 16 hours per week or for five years at least eighthours per week A recent court ruling suggests that qualifications inrespect of part-time work could be in breach of European Courtrulings

Under the terms of European law, Article 119 of the Treaty of Romeprovides that: ‘Each member state shall maintain the application of theprinciple that men and women should receive equal pay for equal work.’

The UK government appears reluctant to accept European Directives

on other women’s issues and has opted out of the Social Chapter underthe Maastricht Treaty

Other areas, such as pension rights and retirement ages, have beensubject to decisions in the European Court, principally in the Barber case

(Barber v Guardian Royal Exchange 1990) which established that from

17 May 1990 sex equality in pension matters had to apply, while the Ten

Oever case (Ten Oever v Stichting 1993) reaffirmed the principle of sex

equality and ruled on the meaning of the non-retrospective provision inthe Barber judgment The significance of this is that benefits need to beequalised only in respect of post-17 May 1990 service and that is the datefrom which spouses’ benefits must be equalised

The British government has recently announced that the state pensionage will be equalised at 65, the equalisation to be introducedprogressively between the years 2010 and 2020

Health and safety

The European Commission has adopted a directive aimed at improvingthe health and safety of pregnant workers, those who have recently givenbirth and those who are breast-feeding The Management of Health andSafety at Work Regulations have been amended accordingly (Regulation13A-C) Under this comprehensive amendment a special risk assessment

is required with respect to women who fulfil the above conditions Where

a risk is demonstrated, the hours of work or working conditions should

be altered to avoid the risk where it is reasonable to do so If it is notpossible to remove the risk and alternative work is not available then theemployee must be suspended with continued remuneration Annex 1 tothe Council Directive provides a list of agents, working conditions andprocesses that an employer must assess for risk; Annex 2 gives a list ofagents and working conditions to which pregnant workers must not beexposed

The hazards which must be assessed may be chemical, physical ormicrobiological

Chemical hazards

The area which has probably caused most concern is that of chemicalhazard to reproduction It is perhaps important to say here that thevulnerability of the male reproductive system cannot be ignored Forexample, infertility was demonstrated in male pesticide workers exposed

to the chemical dibromochloropropane It has been suggested that there

is a higher incidence of leukaemia in the children of fathers working innuclear processing plants

It should also be noted that exposure to chemicals outside the worksituation through alcohol consumption and smoking has been clearlyassociated with increased risk of miscarriage

Several groups of chemicals have been implicated in causingreproductive impairment

Lead

In 1989 the UK Factory Inspectorate reported that women exposed tolead at work were more likely to miscarry where there was significantenvironmental contamination and poor standards of hygiene It is nowknown that children and adult females are more sensitive to leadexposure In recognition of this, the Lead Regulations require that anywoman of reproductive capacity should be withdrawn from work whichexposes her to lead when the lead level in her blood reaches 40 ug/100ml

or above In contrast, men may continue to work up to a 70ug/100mlblood level

Sterilising agents

Ethylene oxide is a fumigant for food stuffs and textiles and has beenused in the sterilisation of surgical instruments Accidental exposure hasbeen shown to cause chromosomal damage One study showed anincreased incidence of abortions among hospital staff using ethyleneoxide to sterilise instruments (Hemminki 1985)

Pregnant women should not be involved in work using ethylene oxideunless the process is totally enclosed

Cytotoxic drugs

There is now widespread use of these drugs in the treatment of cancer.Safe working practices for administration and reconstitution only withinlaminar flow cupboards reduce risk to acceptable levels There is norestriction on pregnant nurses being involved in administration undercontrolled circumstances Most health trusts, however, restrict theirinvolvement in reconstitution during the period of pregnancy andbreastfeeding

Physical hazards

Ionising radiation

This is used increasingly in industrial processes The UK IonisingRadiation Regulations set specific limits of exposure for women ofreproductive capacity and pregnant women

Non-ionising radiation

This type of radiation includes radio waves and ultraviolet light.Attention has also focused on the small amount of electromagneticradiation emanating from visual display units (VDUs) Several studieshave shown no evidence that there is any increase in the number ofmiscarriages and birth defects among women working with VDUs.Studies by the National Radiological Protection Board confirm thatlevels of radiation are well below recommended acceptable levels

Noise

There is a suggestion that exposure of the mother during pregnancy tohigh levels of noise may result in high frequency hearing loss in the child.However, studies have so far proved inconclusive

Exercise

The increased number of women in the armed forces and theirassumption of a full role has shown that high degrees of physical exercisemay result in the transitory loss of menstruation This has also been seen

in ballet dancers There appear to be no long-term effects However,women are more at risk of musculoskeletal damage during pregnancy

Microbiological hazards

Chicken pox, rubella and cytomegalovirus infection during pregnancycan have an adverse effect on the foetus Pregnant women should avoidexposure to these infections Clearly, those engaged in work withchildren or health care are more likely to be at risk

Reducing the risk

As we have seen, in compliance with the Health and Safety at Work etc.Act 1974 the employer is required to provide a safe place of work as far

as is reasonably practicable This was taken to mean that it should besafe for the majority of workers However, the new legislation in relation

to pregnant women requires the workplace to be safe for them as aspecial group

Do employers, therefore, have the right to exclude from the workplacethose individuals who are particularly vulnerable for whatever reason? Insituations which may be hazardous to women of reproductive age, asdefined by the recent legislation, how is an employer to know of thepregnancy while still respecting the individual’s privacy?

The Health and Safety Commission defines a woman of reproductiveage as ‘any woman capable of conceiving and carrying a child’ Itsuggests that any woman should be presumed to have reproductivecapacity unless she provides a medical certificate stating otherwise Thiscould, of course, have wide-ranging implications for the employment ofwomen The Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) has stated thatacceptable levels of toxic exposure may need to be lower for women ofreproductive capacity To achieve this in a reasonably practicable way,organisations can either:

• suspend the employee on medical grounds;

• offer alternative work;

• dismiss the employee;

• give the employee the option of remaining, having explained therisks

Any of these solutions may leave the organisation open to a claim ofsexual discrimination Alternatively, any subsequent damage to thefoetus, if preventive action is not taken, may result in litigation and evenprosecution under health and safety legislation

The EOC has also indicated that questions about pregnancy andrelated matters on pre-employment questionnaires may be seen asdiscriminatory Employers may well be caught between a rock and a hardplace in their efforts to achieve fairness in the employment of women Atpresent, there is little case law to assist

Family-friendly policies

Working women find it difficult to delegate domestic and familyresponsibilities While social change is taking place, the norm is still forthe woman to accept the greater portion of responsibility for the day-to-day management of the home, children, husband, and sometimes ageingrelatives or grandchildren

Company policies for women should recognise that, unless friendly policies are put into place, there is a danger that, in respect ofwomen employees, performance may suffer and sick leave, absence andlabour turnover increase

family-In Corporate Culture and Caring (1993), produced for Business in the

Community by the Institute of Personnel Management, family-friendlypractices are said to enable an organisation to:

• make full use of the skills, experience and potential of all staff andthereby acquire the best person for the job;

• increase its efficiency, profitability and competitiveness;

• attract and retain committed, skilled and experienced staff, therebyrecouping investment in training (and avoiding unnecessaryrecruitment-associated costs);

• increase the number of women who return to work followingmaternity leave;

• enhance the organisation’s image with customers and staff throughdemonstrable commitment to equal opportunities

The booklet gives examples of savings which can be made and anestimate of the costs which could be incurred in the provision of childcaresupport

Initiatives may include options to provide childcare:

• workplace nurseries;

• partnerships with other organisations;

• private nursery places;

• sponsored child minders;

• childcare allowances and vouchers;

• flexible working hours;

• career or employment breaks;

• term-time working;

• flexi-place and teleworking

All these should be supported by an effective information and adviceservice which specifically provides for dealing with crises

Training and development

Business in the Community’s Opportunity 2000 has been influential ingaining publicity for positive action designed to achieve genuine equal

opportunities for women in employment Training initiatives have beentaken to facilitate the movement of women up the hierarchy intomanagement positions and across into male-dominated occupations.While positive discrimination is unlawful in the UK, single-sex trainingdesigned to help women to realise their potential for management andmale-dominated occupations is not In terms of well-being, workingwomen should understand the nature of stress and the human response

to it, to recognise it in themselves and learn to manage the conflictingdemands made on them

Other types of women-oriented training and developmentprogrammes include those designed to address individual lack ofconfidence, especially in the areas of career potential and financialplanning There has also been an increase in help for women in order toimprove their personal safety, particularly where they are employed injobs exposing them to risk; for example, in occupations which provide aservice to the general public and those involving driving, as in salesrepresentative positions

Conclusion

While this chapter has focused on the employment of women anddescribed the issues and factors involved, employers are beginning torecognise that policies and practices initiated to benefit femaleemployees, the lessons learned from them and the improvements made,can also profitably be extended to their male employees