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Impacts of Environmental Toxicants on Living Systems ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY... Impacts of Environmental Toxicants on Living Systems Ming-Ho Yu Huxley College of Environmental Studies W

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Impacts of Environmental Toxicants

on Living Systems

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY

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LEWIS PUBLISHERS

Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

Impacts of Environmental Toxicants

on Living Systems

Ming-Ho Yu Huxley College of Environmental Studies

Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY

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This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material

is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated A wide variety of references are listed Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic

or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying.

Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

No claim to original U.S Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-474-X

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Yu, Ming-Ho, 1928–

Environmental toxicology : impacts of environmental toxicants on living systems / Ming-Ho Yu.

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-56670-474-X (alk paper)

1 Environmental toxicology I Title.

RA1226.Y8 2000

LA4154/frame/FM Page 4 Wednesday, May 17, 2000 3:21 PM

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This book is intended to provide fundamental knowledge concerning the toxi-cological effects of environmental chemicals on living systems It emphasizes the chemical and biological characteristics of major pollutants found in our environment and their influence on living organisms, including animals, humans, and plants The book consists of 15 chapters The first chapter introduces the reader to the theme of the book It begins with a definition of environmental toxicology and discusses the relationship between human activities and their impacts on the envi-ronment This is followed by a brief history of environmental pollution and laws in the United States The chapter ends with a discussion of the importance of environ-mental toxicology as a field of study Chapter 2, “Environmental Change and Health,” presents an overview of our changing environment with statistics on the major causes

of death in the United States from 1950 A possible link between our changing environment and the changing pattern of human diseases is considered Examples are given to relate certain diseases to environmental toxicants Chapter 3, “Occur-rence of Toxicants,” identifies certain ways in which the occur“Occur-rence of environmental toxicants may be recognized This is followed by a brief review of major environ-mental pollution episodes or disasters that have occurred in recent decades

Chapter 4, “Damage Process and Action of Toxicant,” discusses general ways

in which environmental toxicants may cause deleterious effects on living organisms The chapter includes processes involved in toxicant uptake, transport, storage, metab-olism, action, and, wherever applicable, excretion, highlighting several ways in which toxicants cause damage to plants, animals, and humans Chapter 5, “Factors Affecting Xenobiotic Action,” discusses several factors that influence the toxicity of xenobiotics or environmental toxicants Included in the discussion are physical and chemical characteristics of toxicants and their environmental, biological, and nutri-tional factors The metabolism of environmental chemicals — biotransformation —

is discussed in Chapter 6 The chapter introduces Phase I and II reactions and stresses the importance of biotransformation in living systems and the consequences of the process Main topics covered include detoxification of xenobiotics, possible produc-tion of free radicals, and the acproduc-tion of cellular antioxidant defense systems, including endogenous antioxidants and free radical scavenging enzymes In Chapter 7,

“Defense Responses to Toxicants,” several major defense mechanisms available to the animal/human body for coping with environmental toxicants are discussed Emphasis is placed on such mechanisms found in the respiratory tract, gastrointes-tinal tract, liver, kidneys, and membranes A brief discussion of defense mechanisms manifested by some plant species is also included

Chapter 8, “Air Pollution — Inorganic Gases,” deals with the four gaseous air pollutants included in the “Criteria Air Pollutants” designated by the EPA, i.e., sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), and carbon monoxide (CO) Their sources, characteristics, and health and biochemical effects are discussed A discussion of particulate matter, which is also one of the “Criteria Air Pollutants,”

is presented in Chapter 9 Specific examples, including silica (SiO2), beryllium (Be), and asbestos, are given with respect to their sources, characteristics, and toxic effects

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Although fluoride is not designated by the EPA as one of the “Criteria Air Pollutants,”

it is nevertheless an important atmospheric pollutant Moreover, in contrast to other air pollutants, fluoride can exist in gaseous and particulate forms, and it is a water-borne pollutant as well, afflicting a large number of people throughout the world The importance of environmental fluoride is, therefore, examined in Chapter 10 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), another group of pollutants belonging to the

“Criteria Air Pollutants,” are discussed in Chapter 11 The properties and health effects of alkanes, alkenes, and aromatic hydrocarbons are reviewed in this chapter

Of the aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, and the xylenes are discussed Additionally, the sources, properties, health effects, and metabolism of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are presented

Chapter 12, “Environmental Metals,” considers in some detail the sources, char-acteristics, and toxic effects of several metals and a metalloid Included in the discussion are lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), and arsenic (As)

Chapter 13, “Pesticides and Related Materials,” describes the three groups of syn-thetic organic pesticides, including chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, and carbamates The chapter also discusses the toxic effects of several related organic compounds, such as PCBs, PBBs, and dioxins Current concern about the disruption

of mammalian endocrine systems by these toxicants is also addressed

Chapter 14, “Mutagenic Pollutants,” deals with the types of mutation, common mutagens found in our environment, and their action The induction of mutation by

UV and ionizing radiations, and chemical mutagens is examined Of the chemical mutagens, examples are given to show the influence of alkylation, intercalation, and the interaction of several metals on DNA The last chapter, “Environmental Cancer,” examines various environmental toxicants in relation to carcinogenesis It begins by stressing the importance of cancer in public health and discusses the known causes

of cancer and the stages involved in carcinogenesis Emphasis is placed on various types of chemical agents, such as free radicals, vinyl chloride, alkylating agents, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that are capable of interacting with DNA This volume is written primarily as an introductory textbook for upper level undergraduates and beginning graduate students majoring in environmental science, environmental toxicology, environmental health/public health, and related fields It

is assumed that the student taking environmental toxicology has had courses in organic chemistry and biochemistry To assist students, review questions are included

at the end of all chapters except Chapter 1 A glossary is also included

Much of the material contained in this volume was based on the lecture notes I used in teaching environmental toxicology and related courses for 27 years at Western Washington University It is hoped that students, as well as professionals, interested in enhancing their knowledge of the impacts of environmental toxicants

on living organisms will find this a useful source book

Ming-Ho Yu

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About the Author

Ming-Ho Yu is Professor Emeritus at Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University in Bellingham, Washington, where he taught envi-ronmental toxicology and related courses from 1970 to 1997 Between 1969 and

1970, while a Visiting Assistant Professor, Dr Yu assisted the first dean of Huxley College of Environmental Studies within Western Washington University in devel-oping the initial program of the college Dr Yu received his M.S and Ph.D degrees from Utah State University in Logan, Utah He did his undergraduate work at the National Taiwan University in Taiwan and his postdoctoral work at Utah State University and the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada

While teaching at Western Washington University, Dr Yu spent a year as a Visiting Professor at the Department of Public Health and Hygiene, Iwate Medical University,

in Morioka, Japan He also did research at the Institute of Whole Body Metabolism

in Chiba, Japan Dr Yu served as Vice President and then President of the Interna-tional Society for Fluoride Research (ISFR) from 1986 to 1996, and organized and hosted the ISFR’s 22nd Conference in Bellingham, Washington, in 1998

He is a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Chemical Society, the American Society for Nutritional Sciences, ISFR, the New York Academy of Sciences, and the Society of Environmental Tox-icology and Chemistry Dr Yu is Associate Editor of Fluoride, the officialjournal

of ISFR He co-edited Environmental Fluoride 1985, published in 1986 by Elsevier Science Publishers, and is co-author of Introduction to Environmental Toxicology, published by CRC Press/Lewis Publishers

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I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my former graduate advisor and mentor Dr G W Miller, Professor Emeritus at Utah State University, for introducing

me to the study of environmental science, particularly environmental fluoride His guidance was instrumental in pointing out the direction I have followed throughout

my teaching and research career In writing this book, I referred extensively to the notes and references I used while teaching environmental toxicology and related courses at Western Washington University from 1970 to 1997 I also want to thank

my former students, who took those classes from me Many of them made valuable suggestions on the course materials I used Wherever appropriate, I incorporated their suggestions into my manuscript My thanks are also due to Mr Robert A (Skip) DeWall, Jr., of Ann Arbor Press, and members of the editorial staff of CRC Press for their assistance and patience I am thankful to my wife Ervena for her support and encouragement in the course of my endeavor

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Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Study of Environmental Toxicology 1

1.2 Postwar Development and the Environment 1

1.3 Environmental Pollution and Law 2

1.4 Importance of Environmental Toxicology 4

1.5 References and Suggested Readings 5

Chapter 2 Environmental Change and Health 7

2.1 Our Changing Environment 7

2.2 Our Changing Disease Pattern 9

2.3 Examples of Environmental Diseases 9

2.3.1 Cancer 11

2.3.2 Birth Defects 12

2.3.3 Reproductive Damage 13

2.3.4 Respiratory Diseases 13

2.3.5 Heavy Metal-Induced Diseases 14

2.5 Review Questions 17

Chapter 3 Occurrence of Toxicants 19

3.1 Introduction 19

3.2 Visible Smoke or Smog 19

3.3 Offensive Odors 20

3.4 Agricultural Damage 20

3.5 Intoxication of Animals 21

3.6 Injuries to Humans 21

3.7 Acute and Chronic Effects 22

3.7.1 Acute Effects 22

3.7.1.1 Meuse Valley, Belgium, 1930 23

3.7.1.2 Donora, Pennsylvania, USA, 1948 23

3.7.1.3 Poza Rica, Mexico, 1950 23

3.7.1.4 London, England, 1952 23

3.7.1.5 New York, USA, 1953 23

3.7.1.6 Los Angeles, California, USA, 1954 24

3.7.1.7 New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, 1955 24

3.7.1.8 Worldwide Episode, 1962 24

3.7.1.9 Tokyo, Japan, 1970 25

3.7.1.10 Bhopal, India, 1984 25

3.7.1.11 Chernobyl, USSR, 1986 26

3.7.1.12 Oil Spill in Alaska’s Prince William Sound, 1989 27

3.7.2 Chronic Effects 27

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Chapter 4 Damage Process and Action of Toxicants 31

4.1 Introduction 31

4.2 Plants 31

4.2.1 Sources of Pollution 31

4.2.2 Pollutant Uptake 31

4.2.3 Transport 33

4.2.4 Plant Injury 33

4.3 Mammalian Organism 34

4.3.1 Exposure 34

4.3.2 Uptake 35

4.3.3 Transport 36

4.3.4 Storage 36

4.3.5 Metabolism 36

4.3.6 Excretion 37

4.4 Mechanism of Action 37

4.4.1 Disruption or Destruction of Cellular Structure 37

4.4.2 Chemical Combination with a Cell Constituent 38

4.4.3 Effect on Enzymes 38

4.4.4 Secondary Action as a Result of the Presence of a Pollutant 41

4.4.5 Free Radical-Mediated Reactions 42

4.4.6 Endocrine Disruption 43

Chapter 5 Factors Affecting Xenobiotic Action 47

5.1 Introduction 47

5.2 Physicochemical Properties 47

5.3 Dose/Concentration 47

5.4 Duration and Mode of Exposure 49

5.5 Environmental Factors 49

5.5.1 Temperature 49

5.5.2 pH 49

5.5.3 Humidity 50

5.6 Interaction 50

5.6.1 Synergism, Additive, and Potentiation 50

5.6.2 Antagonism 51

5.7 Biological Factors 51

5.7.1 Plants 51

5.7.2 Animals and Humans 52

5.7.2.1 Genetic Factors 52

5.7.2.2 Developmental Factors 52

5.7.2.3 Diseases 53

5.7.2.4 Behavioral Factors 53

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5.8.2 Proteins 54

5.8.3 Carbohydrates 56

5.8.4 Lipids 56

5.8.5 Vitamin A 57

5.8.6 Vitamin D 58

5.8.7 Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) 58

5.8.8 Vitamin C 59

5.8.9 Minerals 61

Chapter 6 Metabolism of Environmental Chemicals 67

6.1 Introduction 67

6.2 Types of Biotransformation 67

6.3 Mechanism of Biotransformation 68

6.4 Consequence of Biotransformation 70

6.5 Factors Influencing Biotransformation 74

6.6 Characteristics of the Cytochrome P450s 75

6.6.1 Induction 75

6.6.2 Genetic Polymorphisms 76

Chapter 7 Defense Responses to Toxicants 79

7.1 Introduction 79

7.2 Responses of Humans/Animals 79

7.2.1 The Respiratory Tract 79

7.2.1.1 Nasopharynx 80

7.2.1.2 Tracheobronchial Areas 80

7.2.1.3 Alveoli 80

7.2.2 Gastrointestinal Tract 82

7.2.3 Membranes 83

7.2.4 Liver 84

7.2.5 Kidneys 85

7.3 Responses of Plants 86

Chapter 8 Air Pollution — Inorganic Gases 89

8.1 Introduction 89

8.2 Sulfur Dioxide 89

8.2.1 Sources of SO2 89

8.2.2 Characteristics of SO2 90

8.2.3 Effects on Plants 90

8.2.4 Effects on Animals 93

8.2.5 Effects on Humans 94

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