AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications 9th edition 2020 section 1-4

Tiêu chuẩn AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications 9th Edition 2020, phần 1-4. Section 1: IntroductionSection 2: General Design and Location FeaturesSection 3: Loads and Load Factors Section 4: Structural Analysis and Evaluation

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Cover photos: Top: Stan Musial Veterans Memorial Bridge at sunset, with the St Louis, MO city skyline in the distance Photo provided by Missouri Department of Transportation Bottom: Segment K, Shreveport, LA Segment K is a portion of the 36-mile I-49 Corridor which is a four- lane Interstate highway with a 4 ft inside shoulder and a 10 ft outside shoulder from the Arkansas state line to the Port of NOLA Photo provided by PCL Civil Constructors, Inc.

© 2020 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials All rights reserved Duplication is a violation of applicable law.

555 12th Street, NW, Suite 1000 Washington, DC 20004

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

2019–2020

OFFICERS:

PRESIDENT: Patrick McKenna, Missouri*

VICE PRESIDENT: Victoria Sheehan, New Hampshire*

SECRETARY-TREASURER: Scott Bennett, Arkansas

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Jim Tymon, Washington, D C.

AASHTO C OMMITTEE ON B RIDGES AND S TRUCTURES , 2019

JOSEPH L HARTMANN, Federal Highway Administration, LDLV

CALIFORNIA, Thomas A Ostrom,

Gedmund Setberg, Dolores Valls

COLORADO, Michael Collins, Stephen Harelson,

Jessica Martinez

CONNECTICUT, Timothy D Fields, Mary E Baker

DELAWARE, Jason N Hastings, Jason Arndt,

Craig A Stevens

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, Konjit C “Connie”

Eskender, Donald L Cooney, Richard Kenney

FLORIDA, Sam Fallaha, William Potter,

Jeff A Pouliotte

GEORGIA, Bill DuVall, Douglas D Franks,

Steve Gaston

HAWAII, James Fu, Kevin Murata, John Williams

IDAHO, Matthew M Farrar

ILLINOIS, Carl Puzey, Tim A Armbrecht,

KANSAS, Karen Peterson

KENTUCKY, Bart Asher, Andy Barber,

Marvin Wolfe

LOUISIANA, Zhengzheng “Jenny” Fu, Artur

D’Andrea, Chris Guidry

MAINE, Wayne L Frankhauser, Jeff S Folsom,

NEVADA, Jessen Mortensen, Troy MartinNEW HAMPSHIRE, Robert Landry, David L ScottNEW JERSEY, Eddy Germain,

Xiaohua “Hannah” ChengNEW MEXICO, Shane Kuhlman, Kathy Crowell,Jeff C Vigil

NEW YORK, Richard Marchione, Brenda Crudele,Ernest Holmberg

NORTH CAROLINA, Brian Hanks, Scott Hidden,Girchuru Muchane

NORTH DAKOTA, Jon D Ketterling,Jason R Thorenson

OHIO, Timothy J Keller, Alexander B.C Dettloff,Jeffrey E Syar

OKLAHOMA, Steven J Jacobi, Walter L Peters,Tim Tegeler

OREGON, Albert Nako, Tanarat PotisukPENNSYLVANIA, Thomas P Macioce,Richard Runyen, Louis J RuzziPUERTO RICO, (Vacant)

RHODE ISLAND, Georgette K Chahine,Keith Gaulin

SOUTH CAROLINA, Terry B Koon, Hongfen Li,Jeff Sizemore

SOUTH DAKOTA, Steve Johnson, Dave Madden,Todd S Thompson

TENNESSEE, Ted A Kniazewycz

Jamie F Farris

UTAH, Carmen E.L Swanwick,

Cheryl Hersh Simmons, Rebecca Nix

VERMONT, Kristin M Higgins, Jim Lacroix

VIRGINIA, Kendal R Walus, Prasad L Nallapaneni,

Andrew M Zickler

WASHINGTON STATE, Mark A Gaines,

Tony M Allen, Bijan Khaleghi

WEST VIRGINIA, Tracy W Brown, Ahmed Mongi

WISCONSIN, Scot Becker, Bill C Dreher,

U.S COAST GUARD, Kamal Elnahal

U.S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE—

FOREST SERVICE, John R Kattell

v

The first broadly recognized national standard for the design and construction of bridges in the United States waspublished in 1931 by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO), the predecessor to AASHTO Withthe advent of the automobile and the establishment of highway departments in all of the American states dating back tojust before the turn of the century, the design, construction, and maintenance of most U.S bridges was the responsibility ofthese departments and, more specifically, the chief bridge engineer within each department It was natural, therefore, thatthese engineers, acting collectively as the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures (now theCommittee on Bridges and Structures), would become the author and guardian of this first bridge standard.

This first publication was entitled D D SHFLILFD LR IR L D L H D , FL H DO F H It quicklybecame the H IDF R national standard and, as such, was adopted and used by not only the state highway departments butalso other bridge-owning authorities and agencies in the United States and abroad Rather early on, the last three words ofthe original title were dropped and it has been reissued in consecutive editions at approximately four-year intervals eversince as D D SHFLILFD LR IR L D L H , with the final 17th edition appearing in 2002

The body of knowledge related to the design of highway bridges has grown enormously since 1931 and continues to

do so Theory and practice have evolved greatly, reflecting advances through research in understanding the properties ofmaterials, in improved materials, in more rational and accurate analysis of structural behavior, in the advent of computersand rapidly advancing computer technology, in the study of external events representing particular hazards to bridges such

as seismic events and stream scour, and in many other areas The pace of advances in these areas has, if anything, stepped

up in recent years

In 1986, the Subcommittee submitted a request to the AASHTO Standing Committee on Research to undertake anassessment of U.S bridge design specifications, to review foreign design specifications and codes, to consider designphilosophies alternative to those underlying the Standard Specifications, and to render recommendations based on theseinvestigations This work was accomplished under the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), anapplied research program directed by the AASHTO Standing Committee on Research and administered on behalf ofAASHTO by the Transportation Research Board (TRB) The work was completed in 1987, and, as might be expected with

a standard incrementally adjusted over the years, the Standard Specifications were judged to include discernible gaps,inconsistencies, and even some conflicts Beyond this, the specification did not reflect or incorporate the most recentlydeveloping design philosophy, load-and-resistance factor design (LRFD), a philosophy which has been gaining ground inother areas of structural engineering and in other parts of the world such as Canada and Europe

From its inception until the early 1970s, the sole design philosophy embedded within the Standard Specifications wasone known as working stress design (WSD) WSD establishes allowable stresses as a fraction or percentage of a givenmaterial’s load-carrying capacity, and requires that calculated design stresses not exceed those allowable stresses.Beginning in the early 1970s, WSD began to be adjusted to reflect the variable predictability of certain load types, such asvehicular loads and wind forces, through adjusting design factors, a design philosophy referred to as load factor design(LFD)

A further philosophical extension results from considering the variability in the properties of structural elements, insimilar fashion to load variabilities While considered to a limited extent in LFD, the design philosophy of load-and-resistance factor design (LRFD) takes variability in the behavior of structural elements into account in an explicit manner.LRFD relies on extensive use of statistical methods, but sets forth the results in a manner readily usable by bridgedesigners and analysts

Starting with the Eighth Edition of the L H H L SHFLILFD LR , interim changes to theSpecifications were discontinued, and new editions are published on a three-year cycle Changes are balloted andapproved by at least two-thirds of the members of the Committee on Bridges and Structures AASHTO members includethe 50 State Highway or Transportation Departments, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico Each member has onevote The U.S Department of Transportation is a non-voting member

Orders for Specifications may be placed by visiting the AASHTO Store, store.transportation.org; calling the AASHTOPublication Sales Office toll free (within the U.S and Canada), 1-800-231-3475; or mailing to P.O Box 933538, Atlanta,

GA 31193-3538 A free copy of the current publication catalog can be downloaded from the AASHTO Store

The Committee would also like to thank John M Kulicki, Ph.D., and his associates at Modjeski and Masters for theirvaluable assistance in the preparation of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.

5 , 2 21 1 6

The L H H L SHFLILFD LR , Ninth Edition contains the following 15 sections and

an index:

1 Introduction

2 General Design and Location Features

3 Loads and Load Factors

4 Structural Analysis and Evaluation

11 Abutments, Piers, and Walls

12 Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners

13 Railings

14 Joints and Bearings

15 Design of Sound Barriers

“Eq 2.” The same convention applies to figures and tables Starting with this edition, these objects are identified by theirwhole nomenclature throughout the text, even within their home articles This change was to increase the speed andaccuracy of electronic production (i.e., CDs and downloadable files) with regard to linking citations to objects

Please note that the AASHTO materials standards (starting with M or T) cited throughout the LRFD Bridge DesignSpecifications can be found in D D SHFLILFD LR IR D SR D LR D H LDO D H R RI D SOL D

H L adopted by the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Materials The individual standards are also available asdownloads on the AASHTO Store, https://store.transportation.org Unless otherwise indicated, these citations refer to thecurrent edition ASTM materials specifications are also cited and have been updated to reflect ASTM’s revisedcoding system, i.e., spaces removed between the letter and number

6800 5 2 6 ,216

The revisions included in the L H H L SHFLILFD LR , Ninth Edition affect the following sections:

1 Introduction

3 Loads and Load Factors

4 Structural Analysis and Evaluation

5 Concrete Structures

6 Steel Structures

8 Wood Structures

10 Foundations

11 Walls, Abutments, and Piers

12 Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners

15 Design of Sound Barriers

5.10.4.35.10.8.2.55.10.8.5.15.10.8.5.25.12.3.2.1

5.12.9.5.25.14.15.14.45.15

6.10.116.10.11.16.10.11.1.16.10.11.2.26.10.11.2.4b6.10.11.36.10.11.3.16.10.11.3.36.116.11.1.16.11.3.26.11.56.11.6.2.16.11.8.2.26.11.8.36.12.16.12.1.16.12.1.2.16.12.1.2.26.12.1.2.36.12.1.2.3a6.12.1.2.3b6.12.1.2.46.12.26.12.2.16.12.2.2.26.12.2.2.2a6.12.2.2.2b6.12.2.2.2c

6.12.2.2.2d6.12.2.2.2e6.12.2.2.2f6.12.2.2.2g6.12.2.2.36.12.2.2.4a6.12.2.2.4b6.12.2.2.4c6.12.2.2.4d6.12.2.2.4e6.12.2.2.56.12.2.3.36.12.3.2.26.13.2.3.26.13.2.56.13.2.76.13.2.96.13.2.10.26.13.2.116.13.3.66.13.3.76.13.6.1.3a6.13.6.1.3b6.13.6.1.3c6.13.6.1.46.14.2.46.14.4.16.14.4.26.14.4.3

6.14.4.46.14.4.56.14.4.66.16.16.16.26.16.4.16.17A6A6.1A6.2.1A6.2.2A6.3.3C6.4C6.4.4C6.4.7C6.5.1C6.5.2D6.2.1D6.3.1E6.1E6.1.1E6.1.2E6.1.3E6.1.4E6.1.5E6.1.5.1E6.1.5.2

HOHWHG UWLFOHV

6.12.1.2.3c

D HG UWLFOHV

The following Articles in Section 8 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both:8.2

8.4.1.1.4 8.4.1.2.18.4.1.2.2 8.4.1.2.38.4.1.3.1 8.4.4.98.13 8.14HOHWHG UWLFOHV

No Articles were deleted from Section 8

10.6.2.4.2b10.6.2.4.2c10.6.2.4.410.6.3.1.2a10.6.3.1.2c10.6.3.2.1

10.6.3.510.7.2.110.7.3.110.7.810.8.3.5.1b10.8.3.5.2b

10.9.3.5.410.10

11.10.5.211.10.5.611.10.6.111.10.6.211.10.6.2.111.10.6.2.1a11.10.6.2.1b11.10.6.2.1c11.10.6.2.1d11.10.6.2.1e11.10.6.2.211.10.6.3.2

11.10.6.4.111.10.6.4.2a11.10.6.4.2b11.10.6.4.3b11.10.6.4.4a11.10.6.4.4b11.10.7.211.10.7.311.10.7.411.10.811.10.10.111.10.10.2

11.10.10.311.10.1111.11.4.611.1211.12.7.211.12.911.13A11.5.3B11.1B11.2B11.3

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xi

12.10.2.112.10.4.3.112.12.2.112.12.3.5

12.12.3.10.2b12.16A12

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1-i

1.1—SCOPE OF THE SPECIFICATIONS 1-11.2—DEFINITIONS 1-21.3—DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 1-31.3.1—General 1-31.3.2—Limit States 1-31.3.2.1—General 1-31.3.2.2—Service Limit State 1-41.3.2.3—Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 1-41.3.2.4—Strength Limit State 1-41.3.2.5—Extreme Event Limit States 1-51.3.3—Ductility 1-51.3.4—Redundancy 1-61.3.5—Operational Importance 1-71.4—REFERENCES 1-7

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SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION

Commentary is opposite the text it annotates

The provisions of these Specifications are intended for

the design, evaluation, and rehabilitation of both fixed and

movable highway bridges Mechanical, electrical, and

special vehicular and pedestrian safety aspects of movable

bridges, however, are not covered Provisions are not

included for bridges used solely for railway, rail-transit, or

public utilities For bridges not fully covered herein, the

provisions of these Specifications may be applied, and

augmented with additional design criteria where required

These Specifications are not intended to supplant

proper training or the exercise of judgment by the

Designer, and state only the minimum requirements

necessary to provide for public safety The Owner or the

Designer may require the sophistication of design or the

quality of materials and construction to be higher than the

minimum requirements

The concepts of safety through redundancy and

ductility and of protection against scour and collision are

emphasized

The design provisions of these Specifications employ

the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

methodology The factors have been developed from the

theory of reliability based on current statistical knowledge

of loads and structural performance

Methods of analysis other than those included in

previous Specifications and the modeling techniques

inherent in them are included, and their use is encouraged

Seismic design shall be in accordance with either the

provisions in these Specifications or those given in the

AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge

Design

The commentary is not intended to provide a complete

historical background concerning the development of these

or previous Specifications, nor is it intended to provide a

detailed summary of the studies and research data

reviewed in formulating the provisions of the

Specifications However, references to some of the

research data are provided for those who wish to study the

background material in depth

The commentary directs attention to other documents

that provide suggestions for carrying out the requirements

and intent of these Specifications However, those

documents and this commentary are not intended to be a

part of these Specifications

Construction specifications consistent with these

design specifications are the AASHTO LRFD Bridge

Construction Specifications Unless otherwise specified,

the Materials Specifications referenced herein are the

AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation

Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing

The term “notional” is often used in these Specifications to indicate an idealization of a physicalphenomenon, as in “notional load” or “notional resistance.” Use of this term strengthens the separation of

an engineer's “notion” or perception of the physical world

in the context of design from the physical reality itself The term “shall” denotes a requirement for compliance with these Specifications

The term “should” indicates a strong preference for agiven criterion

The term “may” indicates a criterion that is usable, butother local and suitably documented, verified, andapproved criteria may also be used in a manner consistentwith the LRFD approach to bridge design

Bridge—Any structure having an opening not less than 20.0 ft that forms part of a highway or that is located over or under

a highway

Collapse—A major change in the geometry of the bridge rendering it unfit for use

Component—Either a discrete element of the bridge or a combination of elements requiring individual designconsideration

Design—Proportioning and detailing the components and connections of a bridge

Design Life—Period of time on which the statistical derivation of transient loads is based, which is 75 years for theseSpecifications

Ductility—Property of a component or connection that allows inelastic response

Engineer—Person responsible for the design of the bridge and/or review of design-related field submittals such as erectionplans

Evaluation—Determination of load-carrying capacity of an existing bridge

Extreme Event Limit States—Limit states relating to events such as earthquakes, ice load, and vehicle and vessel collision,with return periods in excess of the design life of the bridge

Factored Load—The nominal loads multiplied by the appropriate load factors specified for the load combinationunder consideration

Factored Resistance—The nominal resistance multiplied by a resistance factor

Fixed Bridge—A bridge with a fixed vehicular or navigational clearance

Force Effect—A deformation, stress, or stress resultant (i.e., axial force, shear force, or torsional or flexural moment)caused by applied loads, imposed deformations, or volumetric changes

Limit State—A condition beyond which the bridge or component ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was designed.Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)—A reliability-based design methodology in which force effects caused byfactored loads are not permitted to exceed the factored resistance of the components

Load Factor—A statistically-based multiplier applied to force effects accounting primarily for the variability of loads, thelack of accuracy in analysis, and the probability of simultaneous occurrence of different loads, but also related to thestatistics of the resistance through the calibration process

Load Modifier—A factor accounting for ductility, redundancy, and the operational classification of the bridge

Model—An idealization of a structure for the purpose of analysis

Movable Bridge—A bridge with a variable vehicular or navigational clearance

Multiple-Load-Path Structure—A structure capable of supporting the specified loads following loss of a main carrying component or connection

load-Nominal Resistance—Resistance of a component or connection to force effects, as indicated by the dimensions specified inthe contract documents and by permissible stresses, deformations, or specified strength of materials

Regular Service—Condition excluding the presence of special permit vehicles, wind exceeding 55 mph, and extremeevents, including scour.

Rehabilitation—A process in which the resistance of the bridge is either restored or increased

Resistance Factor—A statistically-based multiplier applied to nominal resistance accounting primarily for variability ofmaterial properties, structural dimensions and workmanship, and uncertainty in the prediction of resistance, but alsorelated to the statistics of the loads through the calibration process

Service Life—The period of time that the bridge is expected to be in operation

Service Limit States—Limit states relating to stress, deformation, and cracking under regular operating conditions.Strength Limit States—Limit states relating to strength and stability during the design life

1.3—DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

1.3.1—General

Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to

achieve the objectives of constructibility, safety, and

serviceability, with due regard to issues of inspectability,

economy, and aesthetics, as specified in Article 2.5

C1.3.1The limit states specified herein are intended toprovide for a buildable, serviceable bridge, capable ofsafely carrying design loads for a specified lifetime.Regardless of the type of analysis used, Eq 1.3.2.1-1

shall be satisfied for all specified force effects and

combinations thereof

The resistance of components and connections isdetermined, in many cases, on the basis of inelasticbehavior, although the force effects are determined byusing elastic analysis This inconsistency is common tomost current bridge specifications as a result of incompleteknowledge of inelastic structural action

1.3.2—Limit States

1.3.2.1—General

Each component and connection shall satisfy

Eq 1.3.2.1-1 for each limit state, unless otherwise

specified For service and extreme event limit states,

resistance factors shall be taken as 1.0, except for bolts, for

which the provisions of Article 6.5.5 shall apply, and for

concrete columns in Seismic Zones 2, 3, and 4, for which

the provisions of Articles 5.11.3 and 5.11.4.1.2 shall apply

All limit states shall be considered of equal importance

Ductility, redundancy, and operational classificationare considered in the load modifier η Whereas the firsttwo directly relate to physical strength, the lastconcerns the consequences of the bridge being out ofservice The grouping of these aspects on the load side

of Eq 1.3.2.1-1 is, therefore, arbitrary However, itconstitutes a first effort at codification In the absence

of more precise information, each effect, except that forfatigue and fracture, is estimated as ±5 percent,accumulated geometrically This is a clearly subjectiveapproach, and a rearrangement of Eq 1.3.2.1-1 may beattained with time Such a rearrangement might accountfor improved quantification of ductility, redundancy, andoperational classification, and their interactions withsystem reliability in such an equation

γi = load factor: a statistically based multiplier applied

to force effects

f = resistance factor: a statistically based multiplier

applied to nominal resistance, as specified in

Sections 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, and 12

ηi = load modifier: a factor relating to ductility,

redundancy, and operational classification

ηD = a factor relating to ductility, as specified in

η = 0.95, 1.0, 1.05, and 1.10 The resulting minimumvalues of β for 95 combinations of span, spacing, and type

of construction were determined to be approximately 3.0,3.5, 3.8, and 4.0, respectively In other words, using

η > 1.0 relates to a β higher than 3.5

A further approximate representation of the effect of η values can be obtained by considering the percent ofrandom normal data less than or equal to the mean valueplus λ σ, where λ is a multiplier, and σ is the standard deviation of the data If λ is taken as 3.0, 3.5, 3.8, and 4.0, the percent of values less than or equal to the mean valueplus λ σ would be about 99.865 percent, 99.977 percent, 99.993 percent, and 99.997 percent, respectively.The Strength I Limit State in the AASHTO LRFDDesign Specifications has been calibrated for a targetreliability index of 3.5 with a corresponding probability ofexceedance of 2.0E-04 during the 75-year design life of thebridge This 75-year reliability is equivalent to an annualprobability of exceedance of 2.7E-06 with a correspondingannual target reliability index of 4.6 Similar calibrationefforts for the Service Limit States are underway Returnperiods for extreme events are often based on annualprobability of exceedance, and caution must be used whencomparing reliability indices of various limit states.1.3.2.2—Service Limit State

The service limit state shall be taken as restrictions on

stress, deformation, and crack width under regular service

conditions

C1.3.2.2The service limit state provides certain experience-related provisions that cannot always be derived solelyfrom strength or statistical considerations

1.3.2.3—Fatigue and Fracture Limit State

The fatigue limit state shall be taken as restrictions on

stress range as a result of a single design truck occurring at

the number of expected stress range cycles

The fracture limit state shall be taken as a set of

material toughness requirements of the AASHTO Materials

Specifications

C1.3.2.3The fatigue limit state is intended to limit crackgrowth under repetitive loads to prevent fracture during thedesign life of the bridge

1.3.2.4—Strength Limit State

Strength limit state shall be taken to ensure that

strength and stability, both local and global, are provided

to resist the specified statistically significant load

combinations that a bridge is expected to experience in its

design life

C1.3.2.4The strength limit state considers stability or yielding

of each structural element If the resistance of any element,including splices and connections, is exceeded, it isassumed that the bridge resistance has been exceeded Infact, there is significant elastic reserve capacity in almostall multigider bridges beyond such a load level The live

all parts of the cross-section simultaneously Thus, theflexural resistance of the bridge cross-section typicallyexceeds the resistance required for the total live load thatcan be applied in the number of lanes available Extensivedistress and structural damage may occur under strengthlimit state, but overall structural integrity is expected to bemaintained.

1.3.2.5—Extreme Event Limit States

The extreme event limit state shall be taken to ensure

the structural survival of a bridge during a major

earthquake or flood, or when collided with by a vessel,

vehicle, or ice floe, possibly under scoured conditions

C1.3.2.5Extreme event limit states are considered to be uniqueoccurrences that may have severe operational impact andwhose return period may be significantly greater than thedesign life of the bridge

The Owner may choose to require that the extremeevent limit state provide restricted or immediateserviceability in special cases of operational importance ofthe bridge or transportation corridor

1.3.3—Ductility

The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned

and detailed to ensure the development of significant and

visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme

event limit states before failure

Energy-dissipating devices may be substituted for

conventional ductile earthquake resisting systems and the

associated methodology addressed in these Specifications

or in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic

Bridge Design

For the strength limit state:

ηD ≥ 1.05 for nonductile components and connections

= 1.00 for conventional designs and details

complying with these Specifications

≥ 0.95 for components and connections for which

additional ductility-enhancing measures have

been specified beyond those required by these

Specifications

For all other limit states:

ηD = 1.00

C1.3.3The response of structural components or connectionsbeyond the elastic limit can be characterized by eitherbrittle or ductile behavior Brittle behavior is undesirablebecause it implies the sudden loss of load-carryingcapacity immediately when the elastic limit is exceeded.Ductile behavior is characterized by significant inelasticdeformations before any loss of load-carrying capacityoccurs Ductile behavior provides warning of structuralfailure by large inelastic deformations Under repeatedseismic loading, large reversed cycles of inelasticdeformation dissipate energy and have a beneficial effect

on structural survival

If, by means of confinement or other measures, astructural component or connection made of brittlematerials can sustain inelastic deformations withoutsignificant loss of load-carrying capacity, this componentcan be considered ductile Such ductile performance shall

be verified by testing

In order to achieve adequate inelastic behavior, thesystem should have a sufficient number of ductile membersand either:

· joints and connections that are also ductile and canprovide energy dissipation without loss of capacity; or

· joints and connections that have sufficient excessstrength so as to assure that the inelastic responseoccurs at the locations designed to provide ductile,energy absorbing response

Statically ductile but dynamically nonductile responsecharacteristics should be avoided Examples of thisbehavior are shear and bond failures in concrete membersand loss of composite action in flexural components.Past experience indicates that typical componentsdesigned in accordance with these provisions generallyexhibit adequate ductility Connection and joints requirespecial attention to detailing and the provision of loadpaths.

The Owner may specify a minimum ductility factor as

an assurance that ductile failure modes will be obtained.The factor may be defined as:

DmD

u y

Multiple-load-path and continuous structures should

be used unless there are compelling reasons not to use

them

For the strength limit state:

ηR ≥ 1.05 for nonredundant members

= 1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy,

foundation elements where f already accounts for

redundancy as specified in Article 10.5

≥ 0.95 for exceptional levels of redundancy beyond

girder continuity and a torsionally-closed

cross-section

The ductility capacity of structural components orconnections may either be established by full- or large-scale testing or with analytical models based ondocumented material behavior The ductility capacity for astructural system may be determined by integrating localdeformations over the entire structural system

The special requirements for energy dissipatingdevices are imposed because of the rigorous demandsplaced on these components

C1.3.4For each load combination and limit state underconsideration, member redundancy classification(redundant or nonredundant) should be based upon themember contribution to the bridge safety Severalredundancy measures have been proposed (Frangopol andNakib, 1991)

Single-cell boxes and single-column bents may beconsidered nonredundant at the Owner’s discretion Forprestressed concrete boxes, the number of tendons in eachweb should be taken into consideration For steel cross-sections and fracture-critical considerations, see Section 6.The Manual for Bridge Evaluation (2018) definesbridge redundancy as “the capability of a bridge structuralsystem to carry loads after damage to or the failure of one

or more of its members.” System factors are provided forpost-tensioned segmental concrete box girder bridges inSection 6A.5.11.6 of the Manual

System reliability encompasses redundancy byconsidering the system of interconnected components andmembers Rupture or yielding of an individual componentmay or may not mean collapse or failure of the whole

anticipated to encompass ductility, redundancy, andmember correlation.

For all other limit states:

ηR = 1.00

1.3.5—Operational Importance

The Owner may declare a bridge or any structural

component and connection thereof to be of operational

priority

C1.3.5Such classification should be done by personnelresponsible for the affected transportation network andknowledgeable of its operational needs The definition ofoperational priority may differ from Owner to Owner andnetwork to network Guidelines for classifying critical oressential bridges are as follows:

· Bridges that are required to be open to all traffic onceinspected after the design event and be usable byemergency vehicles and for security, defense,economic, or secondary life safety purposesimmediately after the design event

· Bridges that should, as a minimum, be open toemergency vehicles and for security, defense, oreconomic purposes after the design event, and open toall traffic within days after that event

For the strength limit state:

ηI ≥ 1.05 for critical or essential bridges

= 1.00 for typical bridges

≥ 0.95 for relatively less important bridges

For all other limit states:

ηI = 1.00

Owner-classified bridges may use a value for h < 1.0 based

on ADTT, span length, available detour length, or otherrationale to use less stringent criteria

AASHTO The Manual for Bridge Evaluation, Third Edition with 2019 and 2020 Interim Revisions, MBE-3 AmericanAssociation of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 2018

AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, HM-WB.American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 2019

Frangopol, D M., and R Nakib “Redundancy in Highway Bridges.” Engineering Journal, Vol 28, No 1 AmericanInstitute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL, 1991, pp 45–50

Mertz, D “Quantification of Structural Safety of Highway Bridges” (white paper), Annual Probability of Failure Internalcommunication, 2009

Nowak, A., and K R Collins Reliability of Structures McGraw–Hill Companies, Inc., New York, NY, 2000

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GENERAL DESIGN AND LOCATION FEATURES

Commentary is opposite the text it annotates

2.1—SCOPE

Minimum requirements are provided for clearances,

environmental protection, aesthetics, geological studies,

economy, rideability, durability, constructability,

inspectability, and maintainability Minimum requirements

for traffic safety are referenced

Minimum requirements for drainage facilities and

self-protecting measures against water, ice, and water-borne

salts are included

In recognition that many bridge failures have been

caused by scour, hydrology and hydraulics are covered in

detail

C2.1 This Section is intended to provide the Designer withsufficient information to determine the configuration andoverall dimensions of a bridge

Clear Zone—An unobstructed, relatively flat area beyond the edge of the traveled way for the recovery of errant vehicles The traveled way does not include shoulders or auxiliary lanes

Clearance—An unobstructed horizontal or vertical space

Degradation—A general and progressive lowering of the longitudinal profile of the channel bed as a result of long-term erosion

Design Discharge—Maximum flow of water a bridge is expected to accommodate without exceeding the adopted design constraints

Design Flood for Bridge Scour—The flood flow equal to or less than the 100-year flood that creates the deepest scour at bridge foundations The highway or bridge may be inundated at the stage of the design flood for bridge scour The worst-case scour condition may occur for the overtopping flood as a result of the potential for pressure flow

Design Flood for Waterway Opening—The peak discharge, volume, stage, or wave crest elevation and its associated probability of exceedence that are selected for the design of a highway or bridge over a watercourse or floodplain By definition, the highway or bridge will not be inundated at the stage of the design flood for the waterway opening Detention Basin—A storm water management facility that impounds runoff and temporarily discharges it through a hydraulic outlet structure to a downstream conveyance system

Drip Groove—Linear depression in the bottom of components to cause water flowing on the surface to drop

Five-Hundred-Year Flood—The flood due to storm, tide, or both having a 0.2 percent chance of being equaled or exceeded

in any given year

General or Contraction Scour—Scour in a channel or on a floodplain that is not localized at a pier or other obstruction to flow In a channel, general/contraction scour usually affects all or most of the channel width and is typically caused by a contraction of the flow

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considerations or for other reasons, attention shall be

drawn to those constraints in the contract documents

Where the bridge is of unusual complexity, such

that it would be unreasonable to expect an experienced

contractor to predict and estimate a suitable method of

construction while bidding the project, at least one feasible

construction method shall be indicated in the contract

documents

If the design requires some strengthening and/or

temporary bracing or support during erection by the

selected method, indication of the need thereof shall be

indicated in the contract documents

Details that require welding in restricted areas or

placement of concrete through congested reinforcing

should be avoided

Climatic and hydraulic conditions that may affect the

construction of the bridge shall be considered

An example of a complex bridge might be a stayed bridge that has limitations on what it will carry,especially in terms of construction equipment, while it isunder construction If these limitations are not evident to anexperienced contractor, the contractor may be required to

cable-do more prebid analysis than is reasonable Given the usualconstraints of time and budget for bidding, this may not befeasible for the contractor to do

This Article does not require the designer to educate acontractor on how to construct a bridge; it is expected that the contractor will have the necessary expertise Nor is itintended to restrict a contractor from using innovation togain an edge over the competitors

All other factors being equal, designs that are supporting or use standardized falsework systems arenormally preferred to those requiring unique and complexfalsework

self-Temporary falsework within the clear zone should beadequately protected from traffic

2.5.4—Economy

2.5.4.1—General

Structural types, span lengths, and materials shall be

selected with due consideration of projected cost The cost

of future expenditures during the projected service life of

the bridge should be considered Regional factors, such as

availability of material, fabrication, location, shipping, and

erection constraints, shall be considered

C2.5.4.1

If data for the trends in labor and material costfluctuation are available, the effect of such trendsshould be projected to the time the bridge will likely be constructed

Cost comparisons of structural alternatives should bebased on long-range considerations, including inspection,maintenance, repair, and/or replacement Lowest first cost does not necessarily lead to lowest total cost

2.5.4.2—Alternative Plans

In instances where economic studies do not indicate a

clear choice, the Owner may require that alternative

contract plans be prepared and bid competitively Designs

for alternative plans shall be of equal safety, serviceability,

and aesthetic value

Movable bridges over navigable waterways should be

avoided to the extent feasible Where movable bridges are

proposed, at least one fixed bridge alternative should be

included in the economic comparisons

2.5.5—Bridge Aesthetics

Bridges should complement their surroundings, be

graceful in form, and present an appearance of adequate

strength

C2.5.5 Significant improvements in appearance can often bemade with small changes in shape or position of structuralmembers at negligible cost For prominent bridges, however, additional cost to achieve improved appearance isoften justified, considering that the bridge will likely be afeature of the landscape for 75 or more years

Comprehensive guidelines for the appearance of

Engineers may refer to such documents as theTransportation Research Board’s Bridge Aesthetics Around the World (Gottemoeller, 1991) for guidance

Engineers should seek more pleasant appearance by

improving the shapes and relationships of the structural

components themselves The application of extraordinary

and nonstructural embellishment should be avoided

The following guidelines should be considered:

· Alternative bridge designs without piers or with few

piers should be studied during the site selection and

location stage and refined during the preliminary

design stage

· Pier form should be consistent in shape and detail with

the superstructure

· Abrupt changes in the form of components and

structural type should be avoided Where the interface

of different structural types cannot be avoided, a

smooth transition in appearance from one type to

another should be attained

· Attention to details, such as deck drain downspouts,

should not be overlooked

· If the use of a through structure is dictated by

performance and/or economic considerations, the

structural system should be selected to provide an

open and uncluttered appearance

· The use of the bridge as a support for message or

directional signing or lighting should be avoided

wherever possible

· Transverse web stiffeners, other than those located at

bearing points, should not be visible in elevation

· For spanning deep ravines, arch-type structures

should be preferred

The most admired modern structures are those that relyfor their good appearance on the forms of the structuralcomponent themselves:

· Components are shaped to respond to the structuralfunction They are thick where the stresses are greatest and thin where the stresses are smaller

· The function of each part and how the function isperformed is visible

· Components are slender and widely spaced, preservingviews through the structure

· The bridge is seen as a single whole, with all members consistent and contributing to that whole; for example,all elements should come from the same family ofshapes, such as shapes with rounded edges

· The bridge fulfills its function with a minimum ofmaterial and minimum number of elements

· The size of each member compared with the others isclearly related to the overall structural concept and thejob the component does, and

· The bridge as a whole has a clear and logicalrelationship to its surroundings

Several procedures have been proposed to integrate aesthetic thinking into the design process (Gottemoeller,1991)

Because the major structural components are thelargest parts of a bridge and are seen first, they determinethe appearance of a bridge Consequently, engineers shouldseek excellent appearance in bridge parts in the followingorder of importance:

· Horizontal and vertical alignment and position in theenvironment;

· Superstructure type, i.e., arch, girder, etc.;

· Pier placement;

· Abutment placement and height;

· Superstructure shape, i.e., haunched, tapered, depth;

· Pier shape;

· Abutment shape;

· Parapet and railing details;

· Surface colors and textures; and

· Ornament

The Designer should determine the likely position ofthe majority of viewers of the bridge, then use thatinformation as a guide in judging the importance of variouselements in the appearance of the structure

Perspective drawings of photographs takenfrom the important viewpoints can be used to analyzethe appearance of proposed structures Models are also useful

The appearance of standard details should be reviewed

to make sure they fit the bridge’s design concept

52 2 1 5 8 , 6

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