AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications - 9th Edition 2020 [Section 11-end]

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications - 9th Edition 2020 [Section 11-end] 11. Abutments, Piers, and Walls 12. Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners 13. Railings 14. Joints and Bearings 15. Design of Sound Barriers Index

SECTION 11:WALLS,ABUTMENTS, AND PIERSTABLE OF CONTENTS 11.1—SCOPE 11-111.2—DEFINITIONS 11-111.3—NOTATION 11-211.3.1—General 11-211.4—SOIL PROPERTIES AND MATERIALS 11-711.4.1—General 11-711.4.2—Determination of Soil Properties 11-711.5—LIMIT STATES AND RESISTANCE FACTORS 11-711.5.1—General 11-711.5.2—Service Limit States 11-811.5.3—Strength Limit State 11-911.5.4—Extreme Event Limit State 11-911.5.4.1—General Requirements 11-911.5.4.2—Extreme Event I, No Analysis 11-911.5.5—Resistance Requirement 11-1111.5.6—Load Combinations and Load Factors 11-1111.5.7—Resistance Factors—Service and Strength 11-1511.5.8—Resistance Factors—Extreme Event Limit State 11-1811.6—ABUTMENTS AND CONVENTIONAL RETAINING WALLS 11-1911.6.1—General Considerations 11-1911.6.1.1—General 11-1911.6.1.2—Loading 11-1911.6.1.3—Integral Abutments 11-2011.6.1.4 —Wingwalls 11-2011.6.1.5—Reinforcement 11-2011.6.1.5.1—Conventional Walls and Abutments 11-2011.6.1.5.2—Wingwalls 11-2011.6.1.6 —Expansion and Contraction Joints 11-2111.6.2—Movement at the Service Limit State 11-2111.6.2.1—Abutments 11-2111.6.2.2—Conventional Retaining Walls 11-2111.6.3—Bearing Resistance and Stability at the Strength Limit State 11-2111.6.3.1—General 11-2111.6.3.2—Bearing Resistance 11-2111.6.3.3—Eccentricity Limits 11-2411.6.3.4—Subsurface Erosion 11-2411.6.3.5—Passive Resistance 11-2411.6.3.6—Sliding 11-2411.6.3.7—Overall Stability 11-2411.6.4—Safety against Structural Failure 11-2511.6.5—Seismic Design for Abutments and Conventional Retaining Walls 11-2511.6.5.1—General 11-2511.6.5.2—Calculation of Seismic Acceleration Coefficients for Wall Design 11-2711.6.5.2.1—Characterization of Acceleration at Wall Base 11-2711.6.5.2.2—Estimation of Acceleration Acting on Wall Mass 11-2811.6.5.3—Calculation of Seismic Active Earth Pressures 11-2911.6.5.4—Calculation of Seismic Earth Pressure for Nonyielding Abutments and Walls 11-3211.6.5.5—Calculation of Seismic Passive Earth Pressure 11-3211.6.5.6—Wall Details for Improved Seismic Performance 11-3411.6.6—Drainage 11-3511.7—PIERS 11-3511.7.1—Load Effects in Piers 11-3511.7.2—Pier Protection 11-3511.7.2.1—Collision 11-3511.7.2.2—Collision Walls 11-3511.7.2.3—Scour 11-36

11-ii AASHTO LRFD B RIDGE D ESIGN S PECIFICATIONS , N INTH E DITION , 2020

11.7.2.4—Facing 11-3611.8—NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED WALLS 11-3611.8.1—General 11-3611.8.2—Loading 11-3611.8.3—Movement at the Service Limit State 11-3611.8.3.1—Movement 11-3611.8.4—Safety against Soil Failure at the Strength Limit State 11-3611.8.4.1—Overall Stability 11-3611.8.5—Safety against Structural Failure 11-3811.8.5.1—Vertical Wall Elements 11-3811.8.5.2—Facing 11-3811.8.6—Seismic Design of Nongravity Cantilever Walls 11-3911.8.6.1—General 11-3911.8.6.2—Seismic Active Lateral Earth Pressure 11-4011.8.6.3—Seismic Passive Lateral Earth Pressure 11-4111.8.6.4—Wall Displacement Analyses to Determine Earth Pressures 11-4211.8.7—Corrosion Protection 11-4411.8.8—Drainage 11-4411.9—ANCHORED WALLS 11-4411.9.1—General 11-4411.9.2—Loading 11-4511.9.3—Movement at the Service Limit State 11-4511.9.3.1—Movement 11-4511.9.4—Safety against Soil Failure 11-4611.9.4.1—Bearing Resistance 11-4611.9.4.2—Anchor Pullout Capacity 11-4711.9.4.3—Passive Resistance 11-5011.9.4.4—Overall Stability 11-5011.9.5—Safety Against Structural Failure 11-5011.9.5.1—Anchors 11-5011.9.5.2—Vertical Wall Elements 11-5211.9.5.3—Facing 11-5211.9.6—Seismic Design 11-5311.9.7—Corrosion Protection 11-5411.9.8—Construction and Installation 11-5411.9.8.1—Anchor Stressing and Testing 11-5411.9.9—Drainage 11-5511.10—MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALLS 11-5511.10.1—General 11-5511.10.2—Structure Dimensions 11-5711.10.2.1—Minimum Length of Soil Reinforcement 11-5811.10.2.2—Minimum Front Face Embedment 11-5911.10.2.3—Facing 11-6011.10.2.3.1—Stiff or Rigid Concrete, Steel, and Timber Facings 11-6011.10.2.3.2—Flexible Wall Facings 11-6111.10.2.3.3—Corrosion Issues for MSE Facing 11-6111.10.3—Loading 11-6111.10.4—Movement at the Service Limit State 11-6111.10.4.1—Settlement 11-6111.10.4.2—Lateral Displacement 11-6211.10.4.3—Soil Failure (Internal Stability) 11-6311.10.5—Safety against Soil Failure (External Stability) 11-6411.10.5.1—General 11-6411.10.5.2—Loading 11-6411.10.5.3—Sliding 11-6511.10.5.4—Bearing Resistance 11-6611.10.5.5—Overturning 11-6611.10.5.6—Overall and Compound Stability 11-6611.10.6—Safety against Structural Failure (Internal Stability) 11-68

S ECTION 11: W ALLS , A BUTMENTS , AND P IERS 11-iii

11.10.6.1—General 11-6811.10.6.2—Loading (Internal Stability) 11-6811.10.6.2.1—Maximum Reinforcement Loads 11-6911.10.6.2.1a—Special Loading Conditions 11-7011.10.6.2.1b—Reinforcement Spacing for Calculation of Tmax 11-7211.10.6.2.1c—Calculation of Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficients for Determination of Tmax 11-7311.10.6.2.1d—Coherent Gravity Method 11-7411.10.6.2.1e—Stiffness Method 11-7611.10.6.2.2—Reinforcement Loads at Connection to Wall Face 11-7911.10.6.3—Reinforcement Pullout 11-7911.10.6.3.1—Boundary between Active and Resistant Zones 11-7911.10.6.3.2—Reinforcement Pullout Design 11-8111.10.6.4—Reinforcement Strength 11-8411.10.6.4.1—General 11-8411.10.6.4.2—Design Life Considerations 11-8811.10.6.4.2a—Steel Reinforcements 11-8811.10.6.4.2b—Geosynthetic Reinforcements 11-9011.10.6.4.3—Design Tensile Resistance 11-9311.10.6.4.3a—Steel Reinforcements 11-9311.10.6.4.3b—Geosynthetic Reinforcements 11-9411.10.6.4.4—Reinforcement/Facing Connection Design Strength 11-9411.10.6.4.4a—Steel Reinforcements 11-9411.10.6.4.4b—Geosynthetic Reinforcements 11-9511.10.7—Seismic Design of MSE Walls 11-9711.10.7.1—External Stability 11-9711.10.7.2—Internal Stability 11-9911.10.7.3—Facing Reinforcement Connections 11-10311.10.7.4—Wall Details for Improved Seismic Performance 11-10411.10.8—Drainage 11-10611.10.9—Subsurface Erosion 11-10611.10.10—Special Loading Conditions 11-10611.10.10.1—Concentrated Dead Loads 11-10611.10.10.2—Traffic Loads and Barriers 11-10911.10.10.3—Hydrostatic Pressures 11-11011.10.10.4—Obstructions in the Reinforced Soil Zone 11-11111.10.11—MSE Abutments 11-11211.11—PREFABRICATED MODULAR WALLS 11-11311.11.1—General 11-11311.11.2—Loading 11-11411.11.3—Movement at the Service Limit State 11-11411.11.4—Safety against Soil Failure 11-11511.11.4.1—General 11-11511.11.4.2—Sliding 11-11511.11.4.3—Bearing Resistance 11-11511.11.4.4—Overturning 11-11511.11.4.5—Subsurface Erosion 11-11611.11.4.6—Overall Stability 11-11611.11.4.7—Passive Resistance and Sliding 11-11611.11.5—Safety against Structural Failure 11-11611.11.5.1—Module Members 11-11611.11.6—Seismic Design for Prefabricated Modular Walls 11-11711.11.7—Abutments 11-11711.11.8—Drainage 11-11811.12—SOIL NAIL WALLS 11-11811.12.1—General Considerations 11-11811.12.2—Loading 11-12011.12.3—Movement at the Service Limit State 11-12211.12.4—Safety against Soil Failure (External and Overall Stability—Strength Limit State) 11-12211.12.4.1—Sliding 11-122

11-iv AASHTO LRFD B RIDGE D ESIGN S PECIFICATIONS , N INTH E DITION , 2020

11.12.4.2—Overall Stability 11-12211.12.5—Safety against Soil Failure (Internal and Compound Stability—Strength Limit State) 11-12311.12.5.1—Soil Shear Strength 11-12311.12.5.2—Soil Nail Pullout 11-12311.12.6—Safety against Structural Failure (Internal and Compound Stability—Strength Limit State) 11-12511.12.6.1—Soil Nail in Tension 11-12511.12.6.2—Soil Nail Wall Facing—Strength Limit State 11-12611.12.6.2.1—General 11-12611.12.6.2.2—Facing Flexure 11-12711.12.6.2.3—Facing Punching Shear Resistance 11-13011.12.6.2.4—Headed Stud in Tension 11-13211.12.7—Seismic Design of Soil Nail Walls 11-13311.12.7.1—External and Global Stability 11-13311.12.7.2—Internal Stability 11-13411.12.8—Corrosion Protection 11-13411.12.9—Soil Nail Testing 11-13611.12.10—Drainage 11-13611.13—REFERENCES 11-137APPENDIX A11—SEISMIC DESIGN OF RETAINING STRUCTURES 11-143A11.1—GENERAL 11-143A11.2—PERFORMANCE OF WALLS IN PAST EARTHQUAKES 11-143A11.3—CALCULATION OF SEISMIC ACTIVE PRESSURE 11-144A11.3.1—Mononobe–Okabe Method 11-144A11.3.2—Modification of Mononobe–Okabe Method to Consider Cohesion 11-146A11.3.3—Generalized Limit Equilibrium (GLE) Method 11-149A11.4—SEISMIC PASSIVE PRESSURE 11-149A11.5—ESTIMATING WALL SEISMIC ACCELERATION CONSIDERING WAVE SCATTERING AND WALL DISPLACEMENT 11-154A11.5.1—Kavazanjian et al., (1997) 11-155A11.5.2—NCHRP Report 611—Anderson et al (2008) 11-155A11.5.3—Bray et al (2010), and Bray and Travasarou (2009) 11-158A11.6—APPENDIX REFERENCES 11-158

B11.1—GENERAL 11-161B11.2—DETERMINATION OF TMAX 11-161B11.3—APPENDIX REFERENCE 11-163

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S ECTION 11: W ALLS , A BUTMENTS , AND P IERS 11-25

analyses may be required for bridge abutments or

retaining walls constructed over soft deposits

The evaluation of overall stability of earth slopes

with or without a foundation unit should be investigated

at the Strength I Load Combination and an appropriate

resistance factor The resistance factor, f, should be taken

as:

· Where the geotechnical parameters and

subsurface stratigraphy are well defined

……… 0.75

· Where the geotechnical parameters and

subsurface stratigraphy are highly variable or

……… …… 0.65

For anchored walls, MSE walls, and soil nail walls, this

Article also applies to compound stability evaluation

including its footing In the case of MSE, soil nail, andanchored walls, overall stability for walls is defined as the slope soil or rock shear surface that is located behind theends of the reinforcement elements (see Article 11.10.5.6and Figure 11.10.5.6-1) For a definition of compoundstability, see Article 11.10.5.6

The Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu, or Spencer methods of analysis may be used

Soft soil deposits may be subject to consolidationand/or lateral flow which could result in unacceptablelong-term settlements or horizontal movements

Available slope stability programs produce a singlefactor of safety, FS The specified resistance factors areessentially the inverse of the FS that should be targeted in the slope stability program (i.e., f = 0.75 approximately corresponds to FS = 1.3, and f = 0.65 approximately corresponds to FS = 1.5) These resistance factors address the soil resistance For anchored walls, MSE walls, andsoil nail walls, the resistance factors provided in Article11.5.7 apply to the resistance of the reinforcementelements

11.6.4—Safety against Structural Failure

The structural design of individual wall elements and

wall foundations shall comply with the provisions of

Sections 5, 6, 7, and 8

The provisions of Article 10.6.1.3 shall be used to

determine the distribution of contact pressure for

structural design of footings

11.6.5—Seismic Design for Abutments and

Conventional Retaining Walls

11.6.5.1—General

Rigid gravity and semigravity retaining walls and

abutments shall be designed to meet overall stability,

external stability, and internal stability requirements

during seismic loading The procedures specified in

Article 11.6.3.7 for overall stability, Article 11.6.3 for

bearing stability, and Article 10.6.3.4 for sliding stability

shall be used but including seismically induced earth

pressure and inertial forces, using Extreme Event I limit

state load and resistance factors as specified in

Article 11.5.8

For seismic eccentricity evaluation of walls with

foundations on soil and rock, the location of the resultant

of the reaction forces shall be within the middle

two-thirds of the base for γEQ = 0.0 and within the middle

eight-tenths of the base for γEQ = 1.0 For values of γEQ

between 0.0 and 1.0, the resultant location restriction

shall be obtained by linear interpolation of the values

given in this Article

C11.6.5.1 The estimation of seismic design forces should account for wall inertia forces in addition to theequivalent static forces For semigravity walls in whichthe footing protrudes behind the back of the wall face(i.e., the heel), the weight of the soil located directlyabove the heel of the footing should be included in thecalculated wall inertial force

Where a wall supports a bridge structure, the seismicdesign forces should also include seismic forcestransferred from the bridge through bearing supportswhich do not freely slide, e.g., elastomeric bearings in accordance with Article 14.6.3

For bridge abutments, the abutment seismic design

Articles 5.2 and 6.7 of AASHTO’s Guide Specifications

The static lateral earth pressure force acting behind the wall is already included in PAE (i.e., PAE is the combination

of the static and seismic lateral earth pressure) See

11-26 AASHTO LRFD B RIDGE D ESIGN S PECIFICATIONS , N INTH E DITION , 2020

for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design, but with the following

exceptions:

· kh should be determined as specified in

Article 11.6.5.2 and

· lateral earth pressures should be estimated in

accordance with Article 11.6.5.3

To evaluate safety against structural failure (i.e.,

internal stability) for seismic design, the structural design

of the wall elements shall comply with the provisions of

Sections 5, 6, 7, and 8

The total lateral force to be applied to the wall due to

seismic and earth pressure loading, Pseis, should be

determined considering the combined effect of PAE and

PIR, in which:

and where:

PAE = dynamic lateral earth pressure force

PIR = horizontal inertial force due to seismic loading

of the wall mass

kh = seismic horizontal acceleration coefficient

Ww = the weight of the wall

Ws = the weight of soil that is immediately above the

wall, including the wall heel

To investigate the wall stability considering

the combined effect of PAE and PIR and considering them

not to be concurrent, the following two cases should be

investigated:

· combine 100 percent of the seismic earth

pressure, PAE, with 50 percent of the wall inertial

force, PIR, and

· combine 50 percent of PAE but no less than the

static active earth pressure force (i.e., F1 in

Figure 11.10.5.2-1), with 100 percent of the wall

inertial force, PIR

The most conservative result from these two analyses

should be used for design of the wall Alternatively, if

approved by the Owner, more sophisticated numerical

methods may be used to investigate nonconcurrence For

competent soils that do not lose strength under seismic

loading, static strength parameters should be used for

seismic design

· For cohesive soils, total stress strength

parameters based on undrained tests should be

used during the seismic analysis

· For clean cohesionless soils, the effective stress

friction angle should be used

For sensitive cohesive soils or saturated cohesionless

soils, the potential for earthquake-induced strength loss

shall be addressed in the analysis

Article A11.3 for details on the calculation of PAE See Articles 3.11.6.3 and 11.10.10.1 for definitions of terms in Figure 11.6.5.1-1 not specifically defined in this Article Since PAE is the combined lateral earth pressure forceresulting from static earth pressure plus dynamic effects, thestatic earth pressure as calculated based on the lateral earthpressure coefficient, Ka, should not be added to the seismicearth pressure calculated in Article 11.6.5.3 The staticlateral earth pressure coefficient, Ka, is, in effect, increased during seismic loading to KAE (see Article 11.6.5.3) due to seismically induced inertial forces on the active wedge, andthe potential increase in the volume of the active wedge itselfdue to flattening of the active failure surface PAE does not include any additional lateral forces caused by permanentsurcharge loads located above the wall (e.g., the static force,

Fp, and the dynamic force, khWsurcharge, in Figure 11.6.5.1-1,

in which Wsurcharge is the weight of the surcharge) If thegeneralized limit equilibrium method (GLE) is used tocalculate seismic lateral earth pressure on the wall, the effect

of the surcharge on the total lateral force acting on the wallduring seismic loading may, however, be taken directly intoaccount when determining PAE Note that the inertial force due to the weight of the concentrated surcharge load,

khWsurcharge, and the static force, Fp, are separate and both act during seismic loading They must therefore both beincluded in the seismic wall stability analysis Fp is calculated as specified in Article 3.11.6

For evaluating external stability of the wall and for evaluating safety against structural failure of the wall(internal stability), the simplest design approach that willensure a safe result is to combine the total seismic earthpressure force with the inertial response of the wallsection, assuming both are in phase This approach isconservative in that the peak inertial response of the wallmass is not likely to occur at the same time as the peakseismic active pressure Previous design practice, at leastfor MSE walls, has been to combine the full wall inertial force with only 50 percent of the dynamic increment ofthe total earth pressure (i.e., PAE – PA) to account for this lack of concurrence in the design forces

Research using centrifuge testing of reduced scalewalls by Al Atik and Sitar (2010) indicated that these twoseismic forces are out of phase, in that when dynamicearth pressure was at its maximum, the wall inertial forcewas at its minimum and was very close to zero When thewall inertial force was at its maximum, the total seismic earth pressure (i.e., PAE) was close to its static value Theyalso indicated, however, that more coincidence betweenthese two forces may still be possible for some wallconfigurations and ground motions Nakamura (2006)made similar observations regarding lack of concurrence

of these forces based on dynamic centrifuge testing heconducted This research indicates that treating the twoforces as nonconcurrent is justified in most cases See Al Atik and Sitar (2010) and Nakamura (2006)for examples of the application of numerical methods toinvestigate this issue of nonconcurrent forces

The inertial force associated with the soil mass on thewall heel behind the retaining wall is not added to the

S ECTION 11: W ALLS , A BUTMENTS , AND P IERS 11-27

active seismic earth pressure when structurally designing the retaining wall The basis for excluding this inertialforce is that movement of this soil mass is assumed to be

in phase with the structural wall system with the inertialload transferred through the heel of the wall Based ontypical wave lengths associated with seismic loading, this

is considered a reasonable assumption However, theinertial force for the soil mass over the wall heel isincluded when determining the external stability of the wall.Additional discussion and guidance on the selection

of soil parameters for seismic design of walls and thepotential consideration of soil cohesion are provided byAnderson et al (2008)

Figure 11.6.5.1-1—Seismic Force Diagram for Gravity Wall External Stability Evaluation

11.6.5.2—Calculation of Seismic Acceleration

Coefficients for Wall Design

11.6.5.2.1—Characterization of Acceleration at

Wall Base

The seismic horizontal acceleration coefficient, kh,

for computation of seismic lateral earth pressures and

loads shall be determined on the basis of the PGA at the

ground surface (i.e., kh0 = Fpga PGA = As, where kh0 is the

seismic horizontal acceleration coefficient assuming zero

wall displacement occurs) The acceleration coefficient

determined at the original ground surface should be

considered to be the acceleration coefficient acting at the

wall base For walls founded on Site Class A or B soil

(hard or soft rock), kh0 shall be based on 1.2 times the

site-adjusted peak ground acceleration coefficient (i.e., kh0 =

1.2FpgaPGA)

C11.6.5.2.1

As is determined as specified in Article 3.10

11-28 AASHTO LRFD B RIDGE D ESIGN S PECIFICATIONS , N INTH E DITION , 2020

The seismic vertical acceleration coefficient, kv,

should be assumed to be zero for the purpose of

calculating lateral earth pressures, unless the wall is

significantly affected by near fault effects (see

Article 3.10), or if relatively high vertical accelerations

are likely to be acting concurrently with the horizontal

11.6.5.2.2—Estimation of Acceleration Acting on

Wall Mass

The seismic lateral wall acceleration coefficient, kh,

shall be determined considering the effects of wave

scattering or ground motion amplification within the wall

and the ability of the wall to displace laterally For wall

heights less than 60.0 ft, simplified pseudostatic analyses

may be considered acceptable for use in determining the

design wall mass acceleration For wall heights greater

than 60.0 ft, special dynamic soil structure interaction

design analyses should be performed to assess the effect

of spatially varying ground motions within and behind the

wall and lateral deformations on the wall mass

acceleration

The height of the wall, h, shall be taken as the

distance from the bottom of the heel of the retaining

structure to the ground surface directly above the heel

If the wall is free to move laterally under the

influence of seismic loading and if lateral wall movement

during the design seismic event is acceptable to the

Owner, kh0 should be reduced to account for the allowed

lateral wall deformation The selection of a maximum

acceptable lateral deformation should take into

consideration the effect that deformation will have on the

stability of the wall under consideration, the desired

seismic performance level, and the effect that

deformation could have on any facilities or structures

supported by the wall Where the wall is capable of

displacements of 1.0 to 2.0 in or more during the design

seismic event, kh may be reduced to 0.5kh0 without

conducting a deformation analysis using the Newmark

method (Newmark, 1965) or a simplified version of it

This reduction in kh shall also be considered applicable to

the investigation of overall stability of the wall and slope

A Newmark sliding block analysis or a simplified

form of that type of analysis should be used to estimate

lateral deformation effects, unless the Owner approves

the use of more sophisticated numerical analysis methods

to establish the relationship between kh and the wall

displacement Simplified Newmark analyses should only

be used if the assumptions used to develop them are valid

for the wall under consideration

C11.6.5.2.2

The designer may use kh for wall design without accounting for wave scattering and lateral deformationeffects; however, various studies have shown that theground motions in the mass of soil behind the wall willoften be lower than kh0 at the ground surface, particularlyfor taller walls However, in some cases, it is possible tohave amplification of the ground motion in the wallrelative to the wall base ground motion

The desired performance of walls during a designseismic event can range from allowing limited damage tothe wall or displacement of the wall to requiring damage-free, post-earthquake conditions In many cases, a well-designed gravity or semigravity wall could slide severalinches and perhaps even a foot or more, as well as tilt several degrees, without affecting the function of the wall

or causing collapse, based on past performance of walls

in earthquakes However, the effect of such deformation

on the facilities or structures located above, behind, or infront of the wall must also be considered whenestablishing an allowable displacement

Report 611 (Anderson et al., 2008) concluded that, whenusing the Newmark method, the amount of permanentground displacement associated with kh = 0.5kh0 will in most cases be less than 1.0 to 2.0 in (i.e., use of

kh = 0.5kh0 provides conservative results)

Details of specific simplified procedures that may beused to estimate wave scattering effects and lateral walldeformations to determine kh are provided in Appendix A11 Those simplified procedures includeKavazanjian et al (2003), Anderson et al (2008), andBray et al (2009, 2010) Additional background needed

to conduct a full Newmark sliding block analysis is alsoprovided in Appendix A11

The simplified, Newmark method-based equations mentioned previously present a relatively quick method

of estimating the yield acceleration for a givenmaximum acceptable displacement or, alternatively,the displacements that will occur if the capacity to demand (C/D) ratio for a limiting equilibrium stability analysis isless than 1.0 Alternatively, two-dimensional numerical methods that allow seismic time history analyses may beused to estimate permanent displacements Such modelsrequire considerable expertise in the set-up and interpretation of model results, particularly relative to theselection of strength parameters consistent with seismicloading For this reason, use of this alternate approachshould be adopted only with the Owner’s concurrence

S ECTION 11: W ALLS , A BUTMENTS , AND P IERS 11-29

11.6.5.3—Calculation of Seismic Active Earth

Pressures

Seismic active and passive earth pressures for gravity

and semigravity retaining walls shall be determined

following the methods described in this Article Site

conditions, soil and retaining wall geometry, and the

earthquake ground motion determined for the site shall be

considered when selecting the most appropriate method

to use

The seismic coefficient, kh, used to calculate seismic

earth pressures shall be the site-adjusted peak ground

surface acceleration identified in Article 11.6.5.2.1 (i.e., As)

after adjustments for 1) spectral or wave scattering effects

and 2) limited amounts of permanent deformation as

determined appropriate for the wall and anything the wall

movement could affect (Article 11.6.5.2.2) The vertical

acceleration coefficient, kv, should be assumed to be zero

for design as specified in Article 11.6.5.2.1

For seismic active earth pressures, either the

Mononobe–Okabe (M–O) Method or the Generalized

Limit Equilibrium (GLE) Method should be used For

wall geometry or site conditions for which the M–O

Method is not suitable, the GLE Method should be used

The M–O Method shall be considered acceptable for

determination of seismic active earth pressures only where:

· the material behind the wall can be reasonably

approximated as a uniform, cohesionless soil

within a zone defined by a 3H:1V wedge from

the heel of the wall,

· the backfill is not saturated and in a loose

enough condition such that it can liquefy during

shaking, and

C11.6.5.3

The suitability of the method used to determineactive and passive earth seismic pressures should bedetermined after a review of features making up the staticdesign, such as backfill soils and slope above theretaining wall These conditions, along with the ground motion for a site, will affect the method selection The complete M–O equation is provided in Appendix A11 The M–O equation for seismic active earth pressure is based on the Coulomb earth pressuretheory and is therefore limited to design of walls that have homogeneous, dry cohesionless backfill The M–Oequation has been shown to be most applicable when thebackfill is homogenous and can be characterized ascohesionless

Another important limitation of the M–O equation is that there are combinations of acceleration and slopeangle in which real solutions to the equation are no longerpossible or that result in values that rapidly approachinfinity The contents of the radical in this equation must

be positive for a real solution to be possible In past practice, when the combination of acceleration and slopeangle results in a negative number within the radical inthe equation, rather than allowing that quantity to becomenegative, it was artificially set at zero While this practicemade it possible to get a value of KAE, it also tended to produce excessively conservative results Therefore, insuch cases it is better to use an alternative method

· the combination of peak ground acceleration and

backslope angle do not exceed the friction angle

of the soil behind the wall, as specified in Eq

f = the wall backfill friction angle

i = backfill slope angle (degrees)

kh = the horizontal acceleration coefficient

kv = the vertical acceleration coefficient

Once KAE is determined, the seismic active force,

PAE, shall be determined as:

where:

KAE = seismic active earth pressure coefficient (dim)

g = the soil unit weight behind the wall (kips/ft3)

For many situations, gravity and semigravity wallsare constructed by cutting into an existing slope where thesoil properties differ from the backfill that is used behindthe retaining wall In situations where soil conditions arenot homogeneous and the failure surface is flatter than thenative slope, seismic active earth pressures computed forthe M–O equation using the backfill properties may nolonger be valid, particularly if there is a significantdifference in properties between the native and backfill soils

However, the M–O Method has been used in pastdesign practice for estimating seismic earth pressures formany of these situations due to lack of an availablealternative Various approaches to force the method to beusable for such situations have been used, such asestimating some type of average soil property for layeredsoil conditions or limiting the acceleration to prevent theradical in the equation from being negative, among others With the exception of seismic passive pressure estimation, this practice has typically resulted inexcessively conservative designs and it is notrecommended to continue this practice

The GLE Method consists of conducting a seismicslope stability analysis in which kh is used as the acceleration coefficient, typically using a computer

11-30 AASHTO LRFD B RIDGE D ESIGN S PECIFICATIONS , N INTH E DITION , 2020

h = the total wall height, including any soil

surcharge present, at the back of the wall

The external active force computed from the

generalized limit equilibrium method, distributed over

the wall height h, shall be used as the seismic earth

pressure

The equivalent pressure representing the total static

and seismic active force (PAE) as calculated by either

method should be distributed using the same distribution

as the static earth pressure used to design the wall when

used for external stability evaluations, as illustrated in

Figure 11.6.5.1-1, but no less than H/3 For the case when

a sloping soil surcharge is present behind the wall face (h

in Figure 11.6.5.1-1), this force shall be distributed over

the total height, h

For complex wall systems or complex site

conditions, with the owner’s approval, dynamic

numerical soil structure interaction (SSI) methods should

also be considered

program in which the applied force necessary to maintainequilibrium (i.e., a capacity/demand ratio of 1.0) underseismic loading is determined This force is PAE Specific procedures used to conduct this method are provided in Appendix A11 The GLE Method should be used whenthe M–O Method is not suitable due to the wall geometry,seismic acceleration level, or site conditions

The Coulomb Wedge Equilibrium Method, alsoreferred to as the trial wedge method, as described in Peck

et al (1974) and Caltrans (2010), may also be used forsituations when the M–O Method is not suitable but a hand calculation method is desired, provided that the soilconditions are not too complex (e.g., layered soilconditions behind the wall) Other than the potentialability to use the trial wedge method as a hand calculationmethod, it has no real advantages over the GLE method Studies have indicated that classic limit equilibriumbased methods such as the M–O, GLE, and the Coulomb Wedge Equilibrium methods may be overly conservativeeven if the limitations listed above are considered See Bray et al (2010) and Lew et al (2010a, 2010b) withregard to the generation of seismic earth pressures behindwalls and the applicability of the Mononobe–Okabe or similar methods

For cases in which the wall seismic design resultappears to be excessively conservative relative to pastexperience in earthquakes, other than taking advantage ofthe no seismic analysis provisions in Article 11.5.4.2, there are no simple solutions; numerical dynamic soil–structure interaction (SSI) modeling may need to beconsidered See Bray et al (2010) for an example.Dynamic numerical SSI solutions may also be needed formore complex wall systems and for walls in which the seismic loading is severe Due to the complexities ofsuch analyses, an independent peer review of the analysisand results is recommended

Past practice for locating the resultant of the staticand seismic earth pressure for external wall stability has been to either assume a uniform distribution of lateralearth pressure for the combined static plus seismic stress

or, if the static and seismic components of earth pressureare treated separately, using an inverted trapezoid for theseismic component, with the seismic force located at 0.6habove the wall base, and combining that force with thenormal static earth pressure distribution (Seed andWhitman, 1970) More recent research indicates thelocation of the resultant of the total earth pressure (static plus seismic) should be located at h/3 above the wall base(Clough and Fragaszy, 1977) (Al Atik and Sitar, 2010)(Bray et al., 2010) (Lew et al., 2010a and b) See Appendix A11 for additional discussion on this issue As

a minimum, the combined resultant of the active andseismic earth pressure, i.e., PAE, should be located no lower, relative to the wall base, than the static earthpressure resultant However, a slightly higher combinedstatic/seismic resultant location (e.g., 0.4h to 0.5h) may

be considered, since there is limited evidence the resultantcould be higher, especially for walls in which the impact

of failure is relatively high

S ECTION 11: W ALLS , A BUTMENTS , AND P IERS 11-31

Most natural cohesionless soils have some finescontent that contributes cohesion, particularly for short-term loading conditions Similarly, cohesionless backfillsare rarely fully saturated and partial saturation providesfor some apparent cohesion, even for most clean sands.The effects of cohesion, whether actual or apparent, are

an important issue to be considered in practical designproblems

The M–O equation has been extended to c-f soils by Prakash and Saran (1966), where solutions were obtainedfor cases including the effect of tension cracks and walladhesion Similar solutions have also been discussed by Richards and Shi (1994) and Chen and Liu (1990) Results of analyses by Anderson et al (2008) show asignificant reduction in the seismic active pressure forsmall values of cohesion From a design perspective, thismeans that even a small amount of cohesion in the soil could reduce the demand required for retaining walldesign

From a design perspective, the uncertainties in theamount of cohesion or apparent cohesion make it difficult

to explicitly incorporate the contributions of cohesion inmany situations, particularly in cases where clean backfillmaterials are being used, regardless of the potentialbenefits of apparent cohesion that could occur if the soil

is partially saturated Realizing these uncertainties, thefollowing guidelines are suggested

· Where cohesive soils are being used for backfill

or where native soils have a clear cohesivestrength component, the designer should giveconsideration to incorporating some effects ofcohesion in the determination of the seismiccoefficient

· If the cohesion in the soil behind the wall resultsprimarily from capillarity stresses, especially inrelatively low fines content soils, it is recommended that cohesion be neglected when estimating seismic earth pressure

The groundwater within the active wedge or submerged conditions (e.g., as in the case of a retainingstructure in a harbor or next to a lake or river) caninfluence the magnitude of the seismic active earthpressure The time-averaged mean groundwater elevationshould be used when assessing groundwater effects

If the soil within the wedge is fully saturated, thenthe total unit weight (gt) should be used to estimate theearth pressure when using the M–O Method, under the assumption that the soil and water move as a unit duringseismic loading This situation will apply for soils that are not free draining

11-32 AASHTO LRFD B RIDGE D ESIGN S PECIFICATIONS , N INTH E DITION , 2020

If the backfill material is a very open granularmaterial, such as quarry spalls, it is possible that the waterwill not move with the soil during seismic loading In thiscase, the effective unit weight should be used in thepressure determination and an additional forcecomponent due to hydrodynamic effects should be added

to the wall pressure Various methods are available toestimate the hydrodynamic pressure (see Kramer, 1996) Generally, these methods involve a form of theWestergaard solution

11.6.5.4—Calculation of Seismic Earth Pressure

for Nonyielding Abutments and Walls

For abutment walls and other walls that are

considered nonyielding, the value of kh used to calculate

seismic earth pressure shall be increased to 1.0kh0, unless

the Owner approves the use of more sophisticated

numerical analysis techniques to determine the

seismically induced earth pressure acting on the wall,

considering the ability of the wall to yield in response to

lateral loading In this case, kh should not be corrected for

wall displacement, since displacement is assumed to be

zero However, kh should be corrected for wave scattering

effects as specified in Article 11.6.5.2.2

C11.6.5.4

The lateral earth pressure calculation methodologiesprovided in Article 11.6.5.3 assume that the abutment

or wall is free to laterally yield a sufficient amount

to mobilize peak soil strengths in the backfill Examples

of walls that may be nonyielding are integral abutments, abutment walls with structural wing walls, tunnelportal walls, and tied back cylinder pile walls Forgranular soils, peak soil strengths can be assumed to bemobilized if deflections at the wall top are about 0.5percent of the abutment or wall height For walls restrained from movement by structures, batter piles,

or anchors, lateral forces induced by backfill inertialforces could be greater than those calculated by M–O

or GLE methods of analysis Simplified elastic solutionspresented by Wood (1973) for rigid nonyieldingwalls also indicate that pressures are greater than thosegiven by M–O and GLE analysis These solutions also indicate that a higher resultant location for thecombined effect of static and seismic earth pressure of h/2 may be warranted for nonyielding abutments and wallsand should be considered for design The use of a factor

of 1.0 applied to kh0 is recommended for design wheredoubt exists that an abutment or wall can yieldsufficiently to mobilize backfill soil strengths In general,

if the lack of ability of the wall to yield requires that thewall be designed for K0 conditions for the strength limitstate, then a kh of 1.0kh0 should be used for seismic design.Alternatively, numerical methods may be used tobetter quantify the yielding or nonyielding nature of thewall and its effect on the seismic earth pressures thatdevelop, if approved by the Owner

11.6.5.5—Calculation of Seismic Passive Earth

Pressure

For estimating seismic passive earth pressures, wall

friction and the deformation required to mobilize the

passive resistance shall be considered and a log spiral

design methodology shall be used The M–O Method

shall not be used for estimating passive seismic earth

pressure

Seismic passive earth pressures shall be estimated

using procedures that account for the friction between the

retaining wall and the soil, the nonlinear failure surface

that develops in the soil during passive pressure loading,

C11.6.5.5

The seismic passive earth pressure becomesimportant for walls that develop resistance to sliding fromthe embedded portion of the wall For these designs, it isimportant to estimate passive pressures that are not overlyconservative or unconservative for the seismic loadingcondition This is particularly the case if displacement-based design methods are used but it can also affect theefficiency of designs based on limit-equilibrium methods

If the depth of embedment of the retaining wall is lessthan 5.0 ft, the passive pressure can be estimated using

S ECTION 11: W ALLS , A BUTMENTS , AND P IERS 11-33

and for wall embedment greater than or equal to 5.0 ft,

the inertial forces in the passive pressure zone in front of

the wall from the earthquake For wall embedment depths

less than 5.0 ft, passive pressure should be calculated

using the static methods provided in Section 3

In the absence of any specific guidance or research

results for seismic loading, a wall interface friction equal

to two-thirds of the soil friction angle should be used

when calculating seismic passive pressures

static methods given in Section 3 of these Specifications For this depth of embedment, the inertial effects fromearthquake loading on the development of passivepressures will be small

For greater depths of embedment, the inertial effects

of ground shaking on the development of passive pressures should be considered This passive zonetypically extends three to five times the embedment depth beyond the face of the embedded wall

Shamsabadi et al (2007) have developed amethodology for estimating the seismic passive pressures while accounting for wall friction and the nonlinearfailure surface within the soil Appendix A11 of thisSection provides charts based on this development for awall friction of two-thirds of the soil friction angle, f, and

a range of seismic coefficients, f values, and soil cohesion, c

The seismic coefficient used in the passive seismicearth pressure calculation is the same value as used forthe seismic active earth pressure calculation Wavescattering reductions are also appropriate to account for incoherency of ground motions in the soil if the depth ofthe passive zone exceeds 20.0 ft For most wall designs,the difference between the seismic coefficient behind thewall relative to seismic coefficient of the soil in front ofthe wall is too small to warrant use of different values The M–O equation for seismic passive earth pressure

is not recommended for use in determining the seismicpassive pressure, despite its apparent simplicity Forpassive earth pressure determination, the M–O equation

is based on the Coulomb method of determining passiveearth pressure; this method can overestimate the earthpressure in some cases

A key consideration during the determination ofstatic and seismic passive pressures is the wall friction.Common practice is to assume that some wall friction willoccur for static loading The amount of interface frictionfor static loading is often assumed to range from 50percent to 80 percent of the soil friction angle Similarguidance is not available for seismic loading

Another important consideration when using theseismic passive earth pressure is the amount ofdeformation required to mobilize this force Thedeformation to mobilize the passive earth pressure duringstatic loading is usually assumed to be large—typically 2 percent to 6 percent of the embedded wall height Similarguidance is not available for seismic loading andtherefore the normal approach during design for seismicpassive earth pressures is to assume that the displacement

to mobilize the seismic passive earth pressure is the same

as for static loading

11-52 AASHTO LRFD B RIDGE D ESIGN S PECIFICATIONS , N INTH E DITION , 2020

Figure C11.9.5.1-2—Calculation of Anchor Loads for Multilevel Wall after Sabatini et al (1999)

11.9.5.2—Vertical Wall Elements

Vertical wall elements shall be designed to resist all

horizontal earth pressure, surcharge, water pressure,

anchor, and seismic loadings, as well as the vertical

component of the anchor loads and any other vertical

loads Horizontal supports may be assumed at each

anchor location and at the bottom of the excavation if the

vertical element is sufficiently embedded below the

bottom of the excavation

C11.9.5.2 Discrete vertical wall elements are continuousthroughout their length and include driven piles, caissons,drilled shafts, and auger-cast piles, i.e., piles and built-up sections installed in preaugured holes and backfilled withstructural concrete in the passive zone and lean concrete

in the exposed section of the wall

Continuous vertical wall elements are continuousthroughout both their length and width, although verticaljoints may prevent shear and/or moment transfer betweenadjacent sections Continuous vertical wall elementsinclude sheet piles, precast or cast-in-place concrete diaphragm wall panels, tangent-piles, and tangent caissons

For structural analysis methods, see Section 4 For walls supported in or through soft clays with

Su < 0.15γs¢H, continuous vertical elements extendingwell below the exposed base of the wall may be required

to prevent heave in front of the wall Otherwise, thevertical elements are embedded approximately 3.0 ft or as required for stability or end bearing

11.9.5.3—Facing

The provisions of Article 11.8.5.2 shall apply

6 ( 7,21 : //6 870(176 1' 3 ,(56

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