developing an industrial chemical process an integrated approach

These professionals work in industrial corporations, research orga-nizations, universities, engineering companies, equipment suppliers, statu-tory public functions, to name a few, in man

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An Integrated Approach

DEVELOPING INDUSTRIAL

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This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material

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This book presents a detailed discussion of the issues that have to beaddressed, in most cases, in the development and the first implementation

of a novel industrial chemical process

These issues start with the “whys” and “wheres,” then address theworking organization and all the different steps, activities, and reviews inthe process development program, and finally in the implementation, design,construction, and start-up of a new plant

Why is such book needed at all?

This specific field of activity is constantly occupying many thousands ofmanagers, scientists, engineers, chemists, specialists, economists, and tech-nicians These professionals work in industrial corporations, research orga-nizations, universities, engineering companies, equipment suppliers, statu-tory public functions, to name a few, in many countries around the world.The result of their activity has been hundreds of new processes and newplants in the chemical industry every year

Nevertheless, at present, there seem to be no recognized professionalstandards, no generally accepted written procedures, or even a book cover-ing this professional field Quite different working practices are implemented

in different corporations and in different countries Thus, any professionalwho encounters some of these issues for the first time in his job can onlyrely on the direct teaching of his boss and colleagues And in that lotterysome have more luck than others Strangely enough, up until now, the know-how in this important professional sector has been transmitted only by

“apprenticeship.”

Somehow, novel processes have been finally developed and used in newplants that have been built and operated, most of them successful But, onthe other hand, many case stories are widely spread in the profession aboutall the associated problems, serious waste of time and resources, start-uptroubles, and occasionally complete failures

These problems have been generally attributed to personal errors inspecific situations, possibly to the individualistic characters of the inventorsand promoters, and to the opportunistic demand for quick results in newprocesses Such explanations could only be true for the initiation stage

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(possibly 5% of the efforts invested), but cannot hold for all the developmentand implementation work So, a systematic study of the common aspects

to most projects can be instructive

This book is intended primarily for those professionals who are already

on the job in real life, to help them, hopefully, to do a better and more efficientjob, to be happier by understanding more about what is going on aroundthem, and to reduce the frustrations associated with this line of work It isassumed that the readers will be graduates with some professional experi-ence, who have access to all the textbooks, handbooks, and publicationsavailable, to Chemical Abstracts and to the Internet, and who know how touse these So, this book will not be competing with these sources and willnot copy what is readily available At most, it will refer the readers to themore useful sources, in this author’s opinion The suppliers of commercialservices have essential contributions to such projects, and the general issuesconnected with the selection of such suppliers are discussed, but no partic-ular reference is given as far as possible The other references direct thereaders, who may be interested in any of the example cases mentioned, tomore detailed sources

Also, in this book, with due apologies to the chemists, a chemical processdoes include any physical or mechanical transformation or separation which

is necessary to obtain the final products

On the face of it, the development and implementation of a new chemicalprocess may appear to be a matter of chemistry, materials, equipment, con-trol, etc., but it should be recognized that this is a very complex endeavor,and its success depends, in fact, mostly on the interactions and organization

of many different people in various positions

In each such project, hundreds of professionals are concerned, full-time

or part-time, with the research organization, the various functions in thecorporation, the engineering company, the equipment suppliers, patentattorneys, specialist consultants, and civil servants with statutory functions.These professionals are mostly chemical engineers, but all the related pro-fessions are also involved: managers (in particular in finance, production,and marketing), different fields of engineers, research and analytical chem-ists, various specialists, patent attorneys, lawyers, economists, and support-ing technicians

The first need in a new project organization is to establish a commoncommunication and reference system in which every participant in theproject will understand the point of view, the priorities, and the “jargon” ofthe others This aim can require both patience and goodwill from everyoneconcerned and should be motivated by the example of the management

It is hoped that this book can be used for such purposes The author hasbeen occupied in this field of activity all of his professional life in manydifferent positions He strongly believes that a project involving the devel-opment and implementation of a new chemical process can be done betterand more efficiently if:

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• All the issues and all the interactions were discussed and understoodfrom the beginning by all the participants

• The limits of responsibility were clearly defined

• A proper organizational structure and adequate programs were usedThe detailed recommendations in this book can be readily integrated,without any contradiction or competition, with the latest trends in corporateresearch and development (R&D) management procedure, such as the “StageGate” system and similar tools, which recently have been introduced inmany large corporations These detailed recommendations can assist the

“Gate Keepers” in defining the “deliverables” and “criteria” to be achieved

in the next “Stage.”

All the engineers, scientists, and managers concerned with the ment of a novel industrial chemical process, and/or with the implementa-tion, design, construction, and start-up of a plant based on this process, canuse this book to assist them in their work The book will give them a generaloverview of all the issues ahead, and also provide them with checklists todraw up their own working programs, or at least understand the logic ofthe instructions given to them by their boss

develop-Friends with experience have remarked that the scope of this book mayappear to be very complex and its “message” may be confusing for rapidreaders sampling here and there Therefore, it was decided to add at the end

of each chapter a short recapitulation of the issues that can be worth anadditional thought and possibly further reading or discussion

At least, the core team of a project would benefit from a systematic study.Evidently, not everyone would be interested in all issues at one specific time,but it is nice to know that they can come back and consider more intensivelyany pertinent issue whenever they might face the need Professionals with

a few years of experience in this field, who may recognize some of the issuesdiscussed from personal exposure, should benefit more

Part of the material in this book can also be used as a basis for an overallcourse for graduate students who are intending to start their work in indus-trial R&D, equipment development, process engineering, plant design, andmanaging functions in industrial corporations It also can be used for work-shops of continuing education for these working professionals

Obviously, one could have filled the book with examples from actualprojects, but it is debatable whether more such particular examples wouldhave helped illustrate the points or distract attention from the complexissues Furthermore, most of the examples are covered by commercial secrecyand cannot be published So, the compromise chosen here by the author maynot satisfy every reader

The author will be pleased to receive any comment or suggestion thatcan help expand the usefulness of this book

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The author

Dr Joseph Mizrahi was born in 1933 and lives in Israel since 1951 at 27AEinstein Street, Haifa, 36014, phone (972-4) 824-4431, office phone (972-4)826-0737, fax (972-4) 826-0797, email LMizrahi@netvision.net.il He holdsB.Sc and M.Sc degrees in Chemical Engineering and a D.Sc in MineralEngineering from the Technion, Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa Inaddition, he received the Diploma of Imperial College, London, 1965, andthe professor-equivalent grade of Research Institutes Scientists He alsotaught and was a postgraduate supervisor part-time at Technion from 1956

to 1979

Dr Mizrahi has published 14 papers for international scientific ences, 29 papers in international journals, has received 20 patents, and 24communications to various professional conferences

confer-He worked at the IMI Institute for Research and Development in Haifafrom 1958 to 1974, first as a research engineer, then as head of the ChemicalEngineering Department His work included basic engineering design forprocess implementation, engineering aspects of licensing agreements, anal-ysis of new processes, economic evaluations, surveys, worldwide liaisonwith engineering companies, piloting of new processes, run-in of new plants

in foreign countries, and development and testing of new industrial ing equipment In addition, fundamental research was done under his super-vision and published in the fields of mixing and separation of liquids and

contact-of hydrochloric acid technology

From 1974 to 1978, Dr Mizrahi was Managing Director of Miles-IsraelLtd in Haifa, a subsidiary of a multinational corporation in food, pharma-ceutical, and speciality chemicals This work included the completion of newplants, the introduction of new products to the world markets, and thestabilization and diversification of operations

From 1979 to 2001, he provided independent professional consultingservices to corporations worldwide in the fields of organization and stream-lining of R&D programs; consolidation, evaluation, and transfer of know-how; initiation, organization, and evaluation of projects; process design ofnew plants; troubleshooting and expansion of existing plants; and analysis

of corporate development strategy

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This book is dedicated to my wife, Sara, for a lifetime of motivation andsupport

I would like also to acknowledge:

• The influence of Professor Avram Baniel from whom I learned verymuch in various forms of collaboration in many projects over morethan 4 decades, since he founded and managed the pioneer team

at the IMI Institute for R&D where I spent the first 16 years of myprofessional career

• The friendly and helpful reviews of the draft of this book by Ari Eyal,David Gonen, Chanoch Gorin, David Meir, and Tuvia Zisner

• The long and productive interaction over all my professional life with

a large number of my friends and colleagues in many countries, thenames of whom I cannot list in this limited space

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Chapter 1 Why a new industrial chemical process could be needed?

1.1 Changing world1.2 A better quality product1.3 Lower cost of production1.4 Different raw material 1.5 Ecological pressure1.6 New products for the corporation1.7 Newly available industrial technology1.8 New functions for new products1.9 Corporate public image

1.10 Worth another thoughtReferences

Chapter 2 Starting the development of a new process

2.1 Driving forces2.1.1 Backing of a large corporation2.1.2 Promoting group

2.1.3 The second part2.1.4 Public authorities2.2 How a new process is born2.2.l Normal research and development activity2.2.2 Personal motivation

2.2.3 Corporate function2.2.4 Financial and commercial rewards2.2.5 False starts

2.3 Explicit definition of the development project2.3.1 Objectives and purposes

2.3.2 Patents 2.3.3 Possible industrial framework 2.3.4 Timetable

2.4 Different stages of a typical program 2.5 Corporate management procedures for new projects2.6 Worth another thought

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Chapter 3 Essential resources needed for the development project: preceding implementation

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Specific managerial skills

3.3 Core project team

3.4 R&D laboratories and pilot installations

3.4.1 Company’s own laboratory and pilot installations3.4.2 Outside laboratories and pilot installations3.4.3 Analytical laboratories

3.5 Experts on marketing and on potential users

3.5.1 Particular terminology3.5.2 Clients’ needs

3.5.3 Competition3.6 Support from experts on hardware

3.6.1 Plant engineering and operation3.6.2 Equipment design

3.6.3 Corrosion in construction materials3.6.4 Operation and process control3.7 Support from experts in software

3.7.1 Publication search and analysis3.7.2 Intellectual property and secrecy 3.7.3 Patent application

3.7.4 Process modeling3.8 Safety, public regulations, and waste disposal support3.8.1 Safety

3.8.2 Public regulations3.8.3 Waste disposal3.9 Support of specific codes relevant to plant design

and operation, and product quality3.10 Economics

3.11 Development expense budget

3.12 Worth another thought

References

Chapter 4 Actual case examples

4.1 Nature and man: the Dead Sea

4.2 Magnesium chloride-based industries

4.3 Economic uses for the HCl by-product solutions

4.3.1 Strategic policy4.3.2 Coupling of HCl-producing and consuming plants 4.3.3 Timing of implementation

4.3.4 Production of pure phosphoric acid4.3.5 Technological difficulties

4.3.5.1 Materials of construction4.3.5.2 Safe, stable conditions for solvent extraction

in large mineral plants

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4.3.5.3 Clean starting solution

for solvent extraction 4.3.5.4 Recovery of the residual solvent from

different exit streams4.3.5.5 Large-capacity liquid–liquid contacting

equipment 4.4 Phosphoric acid diversification processes

4.4.1 Different quality specifications 4.4.2 Solvent extraction opening4.4.3 IMI “cleaning” process4.4.4 “Close-cycle” purification process4.4.5 Mixed process

4.4.6 New proposals4.5 Citric acid by fermentation and solvent extraction

4.5.1 Conventional lime sulfuric acid process for citric acid4.5.2 IMI-Miles solvent extraction process for citric acid 4.5.3 Newer solvent extraction process for citric acid4.6 Preparation of paper filler by ultra-fine wet grinding

of white carbonate4.7 Worth another thought

References

Chapter 5 Process definition and feasibility tests

5.1 Translation of the idea into a process definition

5.1.1 Scope of the preliminary process definition5.1.2 Comprehensive literature survey

5.1.3 Block diagram5.1.4 Quantitative definitions of the different sections 5.1.5 Process calculations for the preliminary

process definition5.1.6 Presentation of one feasibleimplementation formula5.1.7 Possible industrial implementation framework5.1.8 Timetable

5.1.9 Important note5.2 Critical and systematic review of the process definition5.2.1 Review forum

5.2.2 Fundamental process issues5.2.3 Patent situation

5.2.4 Profit potential5.3 Design and execution of the feasibility tests

5.3.1 Purposes of the feasibility tests 5.3.2 Equilibrium conditions

5.3.3 Scale up of reactors5.3.4 Physical separation operations5.3.5 Scale-dependant and dynamic flow operations5.3.6 Extreme conditions

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5.3.7 Actual raw materials5.3.8 Analytical difficulties5.4 Analysis of the results from feasibility tests

5.5 Second review of the process definition

6.2.1 Vapor–liquid equilibrium system6.2.2 Gas–liquid equilibrium system6.2.3 Liquid–liquid equilibrium system6.2.4 Solid–liquid equilibrium system6.2.5 Reversible and nonreversible equilibrium6.2.6 Chemical equilibrium laboratory tests6.2.7 Experimental difficulties in chemical equilibrium tests

6.3 Dynamic flow conditions

6.3.1 Design data required6.3.2 Simpler processes6.3.3 Theoretical models6.3.4 Special test rigs 6.3.5 Indirect methods6.4 Scale-dependent operations

6.4.1 Vertical driving force depending

on the hydrostatic height6.4.2 Wall effect

6.4.3 Crystallizer6.4.4 High-temperature equipment 6.4.5 Failure to recognize the wall effect6.5 Reporting results from the experimental program6.5.1 Frequent partial reports

6.5.2 Complete reports on the experiment part6.5.3 Implications of the results

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7.2 Process flow-sheets

7.3 Preparation of an overall detailed description

7.4 Listing of all the main process streams

7.5 Material and heat balances

7.6 Material handling operations

7.7 Summary tables for all required services

7.8 Major pieces of process equipment

7.9 Main operational and control procedures

7.10 Listing of required staff

Chapter 8 Economic analysis of the specific proposal

8.1 Purpose

8.2 Preliminary estimate of the Fixed Capital

investment (revision 0)8.3 Estimate of operating costs

8.4 Expected net sales income estimate

8.5 Profitability calculation

8.6 Optimistic evaluation of the profit potential

in other applications8.7 Possible synergetic effects with other production facilities8.8 Comprehensive report for the justification

of the specific proposal8.9 Contractual agreements

9.2.1 Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams9.2.1.1 Piping lists

9.2.1.2 Valves9.2.1.3 Instruments9.2.1.4 Control loops9.2.1.5 Flanged manholes and hand-holes

in closed pieces of equipment9.2.1.6 Provisions for possible future connections9.2.1.7 Non-conventional drives

9.2.2 Examples of portions of piping and instrumentation drawings9.3 “Major” equipment packages

9.4 Pilot testing of specific process operations

9.4.1 Multiple-effects evaporator

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9.4.2 Liquid–liquid contacting battery9.4.3 Main problems for piloting9.5 Modeling

9.6 Complementary bench-scale testing program

9.6.1 Detailed specification of the industrial equipment 9.6.2 Pilot installations

9.6.3 Process modeling9.6.4 The design of instrumentation9.6.5 Corrosion tests

9.6.6 Clarification of waste disposal issues9.6.7 Clarifying process safety issues9.7 Preparation of product samples for market field tests9.8 Clarification concerning any formal permits needed

References

Chapter 10 First implementation plant design: compromises and optimization

10.1 “First implementation” policy

10.1.1 Expected start-up problems10.1.2 Design policy

10.1.3 Identifying probable causes of problems 10.1.4 “Guarantees” for reasonable plant performance 10.2 Modeling and optimization

10.2.1 Composition of raw materials10.2.2 Effects of impurities

10.2.3 Changes in the kinetics of mass transfer10.2.4 Changes in specifications for the final product10.2.5 Normal fluctuations around the designed average 10.2.6 Differences in the performance of equipment10.3 Critical pilot testing

10.4 The process package

10.5 The role of the engineering company in the first

implementation of a novel process10.5.1 The interests and limitations

of the engineering company10.5.2 The engineering company and the project manager 10.5.3 Specialization

10.5.4 The chemical process engineering department10.5.5 Timetable

10.6 Detailed engineering documents

10.7 Final review and approval for construction

References

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Chapter 11 Running in and adjustments in the new plant

11.1 The plant construction period

11.2 Assembling and training the operating team

11.2.1 Recruitment11.2.2 Maintenance11.2.3 Training 11.2.4 Safety11.2.5 Functional organization11.3 Preparation for start-up

11.3.1 “Dry runs”

11.3.2 The plant manager11.3.3 The construction manager11.3.4 The project manager11.4 Preparation with real materials

11.5 Strategic options for the running-in of the new plant

11.5.1 Possible causes of problems11.5.2 Unsatisfactory results11.5.3 Start-up strategies11.6 Stabilization of production

11.7 Demonstration run and project success report

11.8 Optimization of operating conditions

Chapter 12 Consolidation of the new know-how

12.1 Updating the process know-how

12.2 Final revision of the Process Package

12.3 Updating the Operational Manual

12.4 Feedback from users in the market

12.5 Additional patent applications

12.6 New publications

12.6.1 Information on the competition12.6.2 Publications on the new process and plant12.7 How can this accumulated specific know-how

be used again?

12.8 A final note: what have we learned?

Appendix 1 Typical organization and contents of a Process Package

A1.1 General

A1.2 Definition of “black box” objectives

A1.3 Division of the process into sections as illustrated

in a block diagramA1.4 Separate discussions for each section

A1.5 Material and heat balances

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A1.6 Equipment choices

A2.1 Successive stages

A2.2 The invention and promotion stage

A2.3 The process development stage

A2.4 The construction and running-in period

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eco-The chemical industry has always been operated in a changing worldwithexpanding markets, a need for better products at lower prices, change inraw materials, addition and removal of political barriers, great jumps in thetechnology available for industrial application, higher ecology demands, etc.

As time goes on, the dynamic rate of such changes seems to be increasing exponentially. In the past 3 decades, in particular, it requires an open attitudefrom any corporate management towards possible process revision

In such a changing world, an operating chemical corporation couldrequire a novel process for a certain product, if and when one (or more) ofthe objective situations discussed below becomes dominant and is recognized,

at least inside the organization Let us consider first the situation in which

a corporation is already producing and selling the product, but now needs

process changes for:

• Obtaining a better quality product

• Reaching a lower cost of production

• Using different raw materials

• Responding to ecological pressures

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A different situation occurs when a corporation is considering making

a new product.The company will need a new industrial process for:

• Producing according to a soon-to-expire patent

• “Bypassing” an existing patent

• Using a newly available industrial technology

• Creating new markets with a product fulfilling new functions

• Expanding its public image

1.2 A better quality product

The need for a better quality product could be felt in one of the corporation’sexisting markets and reported by the marketing organization Such a needcould arise from the persistent requests or complains of clients or from thepressures of competitors’ products, and it could be reflected in the presen-tation of more stringent standard purchasing specifications Furthermore, anupgraded product could open the way to other market segments

This situation is quite common in the process industry, as a chain resultfrom changes in the downstream uses of the products It generally motivates

a continuous effort in limited research and development (R&D) projects,resulting in gradual changes in the existing production technology, in anattempt to improve the product’s quality as requested Such an aim couldpossibly be obtained, for example, by the addition of purifying operations tothe production line, such as distillation, recrystallization, active-carbondecolorization, ion-exchange purification, and the like, or by compromising

on the product’s yield in order to remove more impurities in the wastestreams.However, in many cases, a point is reached when further improvementwould no longer be possible with the existing process or with the rawmaterials presently used, or when such quality improvement would becometoo expensive At this point, the need for a significant process change will

be recognized and defined inside the corporation, and such need could also

be made public in the market segment This significant process change wouldpreferably be limited to the core production process, while almost all of theexpensive infrastructure could most likely be maintained with minimumadjustments

1.3 Lower cost of production

Lower cost of production is, of course, always desirable in any existing plant,either to increase the profits or to allow lower and more competitive prices

In practice, in all operating plants, this objective is dealt with continuously

by small and gradual ad-hoc steps, which do not impair the regular flow ofproduction

There is not always a direct link between the production cost and thesale price, and there are even examples of plants that have been supplying

an essential strategic corporate need while losing money However, many

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operating plants are living under the shadow of the possible development

of a more efficient, completely new process with drastically lower production costs.This process may become available to the competition and may endangerthe basic economic existence of the plant Thus, corporations must alwaysdevote a continuous effort to keeping up to date with all the developmentsthat could lead in this direction These include higher yields, lower energyconsumption, shorter route, revaluation of byproducts, etc This could evolveinto a full-scale process development effort, whenever a company intends tobuild a new plant to replace an old installation or when stronger protection

is required against the perceived competition

1.4 Different raw material

In some cases, different raw materials may become available that could havedefinite technical or cost advantages In other cases, a significant changecould be expected in the future quality or in the cost of the raw materials thatare presently used, or even in the continuation of their future supply.The changing situation concerning the raw materials’ supply has alwayscharacterized those industrial chemical processes that start with natural rawmaterials, i.e., mineral ores, agricultural crops, or petroleum fractions for thepetrochemical industries The situation could be even more sensitive whenthe raw materials from a plant are byproducts or waste products from the mainproduction of another plant that is using such natural raw materials (i.e.,grain hulls, molasses, mineral concentrate fractions, hydrocarbon streams,etc.) A similar situation relates to the use of some waste products from thecombustion in large power plants (fly ash from coal, soot, solutions fromecological scrubbers, etc.) as the starting raw materials

For example, the world’s main supply of zirconium oxide (and zirconiumcompounds) for many decades came from a byproduct (Baddelayite concen-trate) mined in South Africa It has been known from the 1990s that this uniquesource was progressively and irrevocably being depleted6 and all the suppliersand users of zirconium oxide had to urgently look for new processes Theacute need directed the users’ attention to options for extracting zirconiumoxide from the mineral Zircon (zirconium silicate), which is plentiful world-wide as a heavy-sand concentrate Unfortunately for the developers, however,

it also has a very stable mineralogical structure To overcome this inherentstability, some proposed the use of brute force, such as fusion in an electricarc furnace at 2700˚C, followed by volatilization of silica fumes and otherimpurities (some of it radioactive) that had to be collected, or thermal disso-ciation by a shock treatment at very high temperatures in a plasma torch,followed by a wet treatment Other proposals were based on sophisticatedchemical detours by additive reactions with calcium or sodium oxide at rela-tively lower temperatures.7–10 The recently patented process, developed byChanoch Gorin and Joseph Mizrahi9 for that purpose, presents an efficientnovel route and will be discussed in Chapter 5 as an illustration of severaldevelopment steps The possibility of getting some Baddelayite supply from

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a mine in Russia’s arctic Kola region, along with the rather small world market(in tons and in sales volume) also represent limiting factors in the development

of these new processes

In an opposite situation, the exclusive and efficient production of grade synthetic potassium nitrate, according to the 1967 IMI solvent extrac-tion process,11 has been a profitable operation for several decades as theprincipal worldwide supplier, despite the well-known existence of largenatural deposits of nitrates in South America Since the mining and refiningoperations have finally been established in Chile, the situation in this marketchanged throughout the world Different grades of potassium nitrate arenow available to different users at different costs and the consumption ofthe highest quality synthetic product has decreased All of these changescalled for drastic process reconsideration in the plants using the syntheticroute Such options for change had been available for at least 10 years,12–13

high-but there was no pressing incentive for a development effort

In the last few decades of the twentieth century, the fluctuations in thequality as well as the cost or the availability of many raw materials haveoften reflected the changes in international trade, as many political and cus-

decolonization of many countries, the European Union and other regionalunions, the decentralization of the former Eastern block into separate coun-tries and the accelerated privatization of their industries, as well as theincreasing role of The Republic of China in all economic areas All of thesegeopolitical changes have seriously affected the way in which many olderchemical plants have been operated for generations, and have forced com-panies to reconsider their production processes and possibly how to developalternative processes more related to the new situation

For example, raw (brown) cane sugar could be produced somewhere inAsia, transported to a European city to be refined and recrystallized, andthen reexported around the world Such activity could only have been devel-oped in the past generations under the cover of heavy custom tariffs, whichhave finally affected the European consumers But the gradual reduction ofthis practice in the future also will affect a series of downstream industries,which are linked to the byproducts of the sugar refinery in Europe (i.e.,molasses or low-grade sweeteners) There are many similar examples inother fields and in other parts of the world

In addition, the new “global village” economy has led to many internationalcorporate mergers and other “arrangements” that have affected the distribution

of raw materials in different areas This presently accepted practice constitutes

a drastic change from the anticartel laws that were taken very seriously untilrecently in the American sphere of operation (at least in open references)

1.5 Ecological pressure

Such pressures have been systematically applied in the last generation by public

organizations and/or by statutory regulations in developed countries, to reduce

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as much as possible the environmental damages caused by some existing ical plants In many cases, serious cleanup operations have been successful andall concerned, including the employees of these plants, were much relieved

chem-In other situations, the response of the chemical industry to such sures has been to “do something” that is not too expensive (mostly down-stream effluent treatments), and to claim to have done “everything possible,”except for the ultimate closing of the plant, which is generally not desired

pres-by the community In this continuing struggle, both sides are progressivelyimproving their knowledge as more experts are called in An underlyingmenace, however, is the occasional threat to move an industrial activity toanother part of the world where ecological pressures are less demanding

In many situations, a mutually acceptable solution would evolve from

a change in the source or quality of the raw materials This would require asignificant change in the main process, while retaining the plant’s entireexpensive infrastructure In such a case, the development of the new processhas to be done within strict boundaries, but the know-how developed couldeventually be applied in future plants

Another aspect of the ecological pressure relates to the combustion gasesfrom fuel burning, either in cars or power stations The effluent gases from carshave been dealt with more efficiently, in particular by auto industry improve-ments and through the supply of cleaner fuels from the petroleum refiningindustry This necessitated the development of many new chemical processes(most of them still not published) This solution is not feasible for powerstations, which are using mostly coal and the residual “dirty” petroleum heavyfractions There an additional treatment must be done on the effluent gases onthe way to the chimney to separate the SO2/SO3, NO/NO2, particulate matters,and possible poisonous metallic traces Such treatment is complicated (fromthe chemical and technology points of view) and expensive, because gases need

to be cooled and then saturated with water vapors The resulting heavy white

“plume” from the chimney would be much more visible and of concern to thesurrounding population This could also be corrected with the use of moreheating and pressure, which would result in more energy and higher costs Ifthe chemical industry participated in such efforts, they could recover part ofthe costs from the marketing of, for instance, valuable ammonium sulfate andnitrate of fertilizer grade produced from the treatment of effluent gas Manyprocesses were proposed along these lines and are actively being considered,however, actively but slowly by the power station operators (No referencesare given here, considering the actual commercial interests.)

1.6 New products for the corporation

Let us consider now the situation in which the corporation has not beenproducing and selling the product, or a new corporation that is organizedfor such project

A corporation may have been prevented from entering into a specificproduction line that was well protected by a competitor’s existing patent Such

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patents could cover either the nature (analysis, specification) of the product

or a specific production process for such product These are different issues

If the existing patent covers the nature of the product, a process ment effortwould be required as soon as it is established that such patent would expire ina few years, or if a way to by-pass such protection can beproposed (e.g., by a small change in the formula that does not affect theperformance) Note that the patent law prevents only the selling of theproduct covered by the patent, not the study or the preparation for itseventual production or even its production for storage This situation hasbeen typical, in particular, to the pharmaceutical industry, as so-called

develop-generic medicines are sold in the marketplace at reduced prices as soon asthe basic patent covering the trademark medication hasexpired This sametactic relates to the fine chemicals industry, producing patented chemicalspecialties, additives, resins, catalysts, etc

A patent covering a specific production process can generally beextended

on and on, by additional filing of complementary patent applications based

on the specific practical know-how that has been accumulated during theplant’s operation This technique is not always effective, but it is widelyused, mostly as a deterrent toward weaker, would-be competition On theother hand, if such a competitor has a strong incentive and a good R&Dteam, a serious effort could possibly indicate some ways to avoid the formaldefinitions in the claims of these complementary patent applications Thiswould collapse the whole patent protection (See the case of citric acidproduction discussed in Chapter 4, Section 4.5.)

1.7 Newly available industrial technology

Generally, whenever a new industrial technology has become available from

an external source supplying other industries, typical opportunities for new cess developments should be investigated Such new technology could beapplied to the potentially profitable production of desired products, whichpreviously could not be produced economically The timely recognition and exploitation of such opportunity is one of the main challenges of industrial R&D.

pro-As a classical example, the solvent extraction technology has beenresearched, applied, and refinedas an industrial separation/purification tool

in the 1940s and 1950s This was due to the urgency nuclear applications at thetime; however, on a relatively small scale When the essential basis of thistechnology became publicly available in the 1950s, it was recognized as apowerful separation tool by many of the best R&D leaders in the chemicalscientific profession Its potential uses were intensively and competitivelystudied by many faculties and institutes and discussed in successive inter-national conferences The various proposals for processes and contactingequipment then were developed further and patented in an all-out race bythose in the fields of chemical processing, pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals,fertilizers, and hydrometallurgy, resulting in dozens of highly profitableindustrial processes and enterprises by the late 1970s

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The so-called “energy crisis” of 1973 prompted many fundamental studies

on the more efficient production and use of energy, and particularly in the chemicalindustry Many old-fashioned processes and equipment were then condemned

as utterly inefficient and, after intensive scientific and technological ment, were replaced eventually by new solutions Many new equipment mod-els and designs were developed and introduced in the following 15 to 20 years,and most of these are now considered “standard practice.”

develop-A similar international effort at the time was devoted to the desalination

of seawater in order to supply potable water to arid areas at a reasonablecost Such an intensive effort resulted in improved industrial equipment andtechnologies, which are now available on a wide and diverse scale, althoughthe industrial investments (dependent mostly on public funds) apparentlyare still not catching up with the demand These technologies include, forexample, multistage flash evaporation, multiple-effect distillation with dif-ferent heater combinations, vapor recompression, reverse osmosis mem-branes, etc (See the excellent review of Rafi Semiat in Reference 14.)However, it is important to remember that these technological develop-ments should not be classified for a limited “specialized” application Theycould also be the critical key for many new processes in the chemical and biotechnology industry that has involved a significant evaporation load, or thatoperates sections at widely different temperatures and requires large heat-ing/cooling exchanges

Later on, the use of advanced membranes as separation tools, of tured catalysts, of extraction at “supercritical conditions,” of the high vacuum technology, of lasers and plasma as focused heat sources, of micro-systems, (toname a few), have added many new, potent processing possibilities.Today, the advances in industrial biotechnology are notable and alreadyoffering industrial ways to replace many old chemical synthesis processesand to produce economically some of the large-scale organic chemicals This

nano-struc-is a direct link to the ongoing progress made by the corn sweetener industry(mostly in North America) in the industrial uses of enzymes (in particular,the immobilized enzymes) for producing very pure, defined compoundsfrom starch or cellulose by chemical and physical processes (See some basicreferences in 15, 16, and 17.)

Many very important applications in the pharmaceutical industries forvery expensive products were handled as a “lot of small-scale batch production

time limited to the smaller molecules (ethanol, acetic acid, etc.) and in directcompetition with the petrochemical processing industry, except for foodapplications The large-scale production of citric acid by fermentationopened the way to more complex products At present, the biotechnologyR&D handled by the largest corporations aims mainly to large tonnage,relatively lower cost, and intermediate chemicals for the polymerization ofindustrial plastic materials, such as lactic acid as just one example.18

Of course, any such research project starts with the fermentation biology

in order to select the organism and the conditions in which the desired

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compound can be reliably produced However, one should note that any such fermentation can only be operated in relatively dilute conditions compatiblewith the life (osmotic pressure?) of the microorganism Thus, the desiredcompound can only be obtained in a concentration range of 1 to 8% (veryrarely up to 12 to 15%) in the fermentation broth, together with unavoidableresidual contamination from the fermentation media A quite expensive concentration installation will be needed downstream, together with specific separation and purification processes, to obtain the final 100% product And this fact-of-lifebrings us back to the solvent extraction and/or desalination technologiesmentioned above

Finally, the electronic computer process control technologies, whichbecame widely spread in the past few decades, did allow the practical recon-sideration of some processes that were studied theoretically, but were previ-ously rated as difficult or even hazardous to control manually (i.e., based onthe operator’s decisions and responses) These are mainly in the petrochemicalfield, but also in the classified chemical industry for military applications

1.8 New functions for new products

A new product could also be needed in the market to fill a new function atthe users’ end, resulting from some parallel technological development inother industries Whenever the need for such a product can be defined, aprocess development and evaluation effort will be justified Of course, thesilicon chip industry jumps to mind, but there are many more prosaic large-scale products

For example, the production of citric acid by fermentation was handledfor many decades as a pharmaceutical product on a small scale However, theexpanding industry for soft drinks and packaged food required more andmore citric acid, until it was treated as a commodity and produced in largertonnage in continuous plants by a completely different technology

In a different field, the way in which fertilizers are used in more ticated and intensive farming by many developed countries, under ecologicalcontrol, has continuously changed This has called for the supply of more

sophis-concentrated, cleaner, multicomponents mixtures, mostly water-soluble, with lessresidual contamination of the soil and underground water layers The sameprinciple applies to products in the insecticide and fungicide fields, as thetoxic metals were removed from the formulae and replaced by very specific,biodegradable, organic components

The purchase specifications of many of the fine chemical intermediatesused in the mass production of plastic, refractory, and ceramic materials havealso changed significantly to meet the users’ demands The term “advancedmaterial” is more and more fashionable these days (although not alwaysjustified) and are interesting and profitable markets that the chemical indus-try is expected to supply This would require a significant innovative effort.For example, a young entrepreneur named Steff Vertheimer startednearly 40 years ago to study the preparation of small bits of very hard and

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tough solid material, by sintering tungsten carbide powder with various

chemical additives, mechanical pressing, and heat treatments These

prod-ucts improved continuously and now the cutting tools produced by his

companies throughout the world have a sizable portion of a billion dollar

market Unfortunately, due to the climate of terrorism there also are

increas-ing markets developincreas-ing today for shock-resistant ceramic protectors and

bulletproof glass panels

However, there should be a real need or demand for such new products

from the potential users, and not just the desire from the suppliers to sell more

or to respond to a passing fashion When this author was starting in R&D, he

was given a project (with his tutor, A Mitzmager) to develop applications for

the use of tetra-bromoethane (TBE), a heavy, stable organic liquid containing

88% bromine with a specific gravity of about 3 The wishful purpose of this

development was to increase the limited markets that existed for the company

which was (and still is) making and selling bromine compounds TBE was

used then only in mineralogical laboratories for bench-scale, “sink-float”

sep-arations between solid particles of different densities after the controlled

dilu-tion of TBE with a solvent For example, a mixture of particles is slurryed in

a liquid of specific gravity 2.83 All the “reject” particles with a lower average

density will float while the heavier particles with valuable metallic content

will sink So, why can’t similar separations be obtained on an industrial scale?

This R&D project was a very interesting challenge and within a couple

of years several possible industrial applications became focused A

contin-uous separation technology with liquid cyclones was developed and piloted,

and methods for the recovery and recycle of the TBE were designed and

tested The economics looked good on paper and the know-how (with full

technical assistance) was offered practically free of charge to any user willing

to buy the TBE.19–26

However, despite all the sales efforts, nothing really happened in the

industry A basic difference had been ignored; that separating a

hydrometal-lurgical plant (which is basically a chemical plant, using acids or cyanide or

similar materials) from a mineral beneficiation plant, where, at most, small

quantities of chemical reagents could be handled This difference is not

rea-sonably objective, but it relates to the people, organization, management, and

staffing Apparently, no manager of a mineral plant was willing to have a

separation unit with thousands of tons of a bromine compound in his

back-yard, and all the potential objective advantages and profits could not change

that fact This manager may be convinced that nothing would go wrong as

long as the plant would be operated according to the instructions But he

also knew his staff and that, somehow, someone could make a mistake, and

he had enough worries to keep him awake at night

This lesson was painful but clear; the developing team should try to put

themselves in the place and the mentality of the potential user of the new

product They should ascertain that they would like to have such a new

supply or means as this before convincing themselves that there should be a

need and a market

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1.9 Corporate public image

The development of a novel high-tech chemical process technology has often

been used to enhance the public image of a chemical corporation as a

progres-sive factor, particularly by those companies operating old plants in crowded

areas Of course, this cannot be the main reason for a new development

project, but it could be a contributing factor Although it is quite difficult in

these cases to separate publicity from fact, this factor has often been used

effectively by interested parties to gain the good will of upper management

so they will invest in a novel process development, in particular, in this

high-tech generation

Another related aspect, which is recognized inside the profession but

hardly ever discussed publicly, is the importance of the professional

self-esteem of the engineering and R&D staff of the corporation Their

involve-ment in a pioneering developinvolve-ment should boost their interest, loyalty, and

often act as if employees are disposable In many cases, temporary

pres-sures and false economy considerations have led upper management to

drastically reduce, or even eliminate altogether, the R&D and new project

budgets Such decisions could have an immediate effect on the yearly profit

statement, but it generally leads to a serious loss in the corporate market

position in the future, as available know-how becomes obsolete and the

more qualified individuals leave the company

1.10 Worth another thought

• The development of a new chemical process is a major

technical-economical effort that can be justified only if it fills a concrete need

of an industrial corporation

• All operating plants are living under the shadow of a possibly more

efficient, completely new process with drastically lower production

costs that may endanger the company’s basic economic existence if

it ever becomes available to the competition

• All the geopolitical changes have seriously affected many older

chemical plants, forcing the owners to reconsider their production

processes and develop alternative ones

• If an existing patent covering the nature of a “valuable product of

interest” is due to expire, or if a way to by-pass it can be proposed,

a process development effort is justified

• Whenever a new industrial technology has become available,

oppor-tunities for new chemical process developments should be envisioned

• The biotechnology R&D handled by the largest corporations aims

mainly at large-tonnage, relatively lower cost, and intermediate

chemicals for the polymerization of industrial plastic materials

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• Any industrial fermentation can only be operated in relatively dilute

conditions, and a very expensive concentration installation will be

needed downstream, together with specific separation and

purifica-tion processes

• A new product could be needed to fill a new function at the users’

end, resulting from parallel technological development in other

in-dustries Such a need will justify a process development and

evalu-ation effort, if there is a real need from the potential users and not

just the desire from the suppliers to sell more

• The developing team should try to put themselves in the place of the

potential users of the new product and ascertain if they would like

to have this new supply, before claiming that there should be a need

and a market

• The professional self-esteem of the engineering and R&D staff is very

important to a company, and their involvement in a pioneering

de-velopment should boost their interest, loyalty, and efficiency

References

Reinhold, New York, 1981.

2 McKetta, J.J and Cunningham, W.A., Encyclopedia of Chemical Processes and

3 Meyers, R.A., Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill,

New York, 1996.

4 Bickford, M and Kroshwitz, J.J., Concise Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical

5 Comyns, A.E., Encyclopedic Dictionary of Named Processes in Chemical

Technol-ogy, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.

6 Skidmore, C., Review of World Baddelayite Production and Future Outlook,

pre-sentation to the Zircon 1995 Conference, Munich, May 1995.

7 Poleatev, I.F., Krasnenkova, L.V., and Smurova, T.V., Manufacture of

zirconi-um oxide for fusion cast, Tsvetn Met (Moscow), 12, 56.8, 1988.

8 Tan Guoca et al., Preparation of zirconium oxide from zircon by slaked lime

sintering process, Faming Zhuanli Shemqing Gonkai Shuomingshu CN, 1, 063,

268, August 1992.

9 Mizrahi, J and Gorin, Ch., Process for the manufacture of substantially pure

zirconium oxide from raw material containing zirconium, Israel Patent

Ap-plication 127,848, December 1998; PTC/Il 00/00125, March 2000.

10 Schoenlaub, R.A., Method for Manufacturing Zirconium Oxide and Salts, U.S.

Patent 3,832,441, July 1973.

11 Araten, Y., Baniel, A., and Blumberg, A., Process for the manufacture of

Potassium Nitrate, Proc of the Fertilizer Society, No 99, 1967 Also U.S Patent

2,902,341, 1959.

12 Eyal, A., Mizrahi, J., and Baniel, A., Potassium nitrate through solvent

extrac-tion of strong acids, I&EC Proc Dev., 387, 1985.

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13 Mizrahi, J., Improved process and apparatus for the production of potassium

nitrate, Israel Patent Application 9347HA1, 1993 (Assigned to Haifa

Chemi-cals, Ltd.)

14 Semiat, R., Desalination, present and future, Water Int., 1, 54–65, 2000.

15 Vogel, H.C and Todaro, C.L., Biological Engineering Handbook Principles: Process

Design and Equipment, Noyes Publishing, Park Ridge, NJ, 1996.

16 Blanch, H.W and Clark, D.S., Biochemical Engineering, Marcel Dekker, New

York, 1997.

17 Johnson, A.T., Biological Process Engineering: An Analogical Approach to Fluid

Flow, Heat Transfer, and Mass Transfer Applied to Biological Systems, John Wiley

& Sons, New York, 1998.

18 Baniel, A., Eyal, A., Mizrahi, J., Hazan, B., Fisher, R., Konstad, J., and Steward,

B., Lactic Acid Production, Separation and/or Recovery Process, U.S Patent

5,892,109, 1997 (Assigned to Cargill, Inc.).

19 Mitzmager, A and Mizrahi, J., Pre-concentration of flotation feed with TBE,

Min J., 7, 481, 1961.

20 Mitzmager, A and Mizrahi, J., Improvement in the Sink-Float Classification

of Solid Granular Material, Israel Patent 18,108, 1962.

21 Mitzmager, A and Mizrahi, J., Method for the Sink-Float Classification of Wet

Granular Material, Israel Patent, 18,230, 1962.

22 Baniel, A., Mitzmager, A., Mizrahi, J., and Star, S., Concentration of Silicate

Minerals by tetrabromoethane, Trans Am Inst Min Eng., 146–154, 1963.

23 Boskovich-Rohrlich, E., Mitzmager, A., and Mizrahi, J., Structure and

benefi-ciation of a low-grade iron ore, Min Mag., 325–331, 1963.

24 Schachter, 0., Mitzmager, A., Mizrahi, J., and Brillianstein, A., Classification

and jigging with heavy liquids, Trans Am Inst Min Eng., 91–96, 1964.

25 Mitzmager, A and Mizrahi, J., Correlation of the pressure drop through small

cyclones operating with dilute pulp of various liquids, Trans Inst Chem Eng.

(London), 42, 152–159, 1964.

26 Mizrahi, J., Separation Mechanisms in Hydro-cyclone classifiers, Brit Chem.

Eng., 10, 686–692, 1965.

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chapter 2

Starting the development

of a new process

2.1 Driving forces 2.1.1 Backing of a large corporation

It is evident at the onset that the development and implementation of a novelindustrial chemical process is a very expensive project; that only the backing of a sizable corporation can carry it to completion in the final instance, and thenonly if and when it fits into its corporate framework Thus, this backing is

a necessary condition for the completion of the project

2.1.2 Promoting group

However, in most cases, such development projects can be initiated by agroup of promoters, who could be a part of one or more of the followingfunctions: an individual scientist, an academic department, an industrialresearch organization, or an engineering company Lately, certain “risk cap-ital” funds are involved in such promotions as well

In certain cases, this promoting role could be carried out inside thecorporation by its own R&D section, by its new business department, oreven in many cases by able production engineers (One may also mentionthat in certain large corporations, some “secret” development projects areactively encouraged by certain executive managers, who report only to themwith entirely separate budgets.)

This promoting group could be formally organized as a legal partnershipand raise a limited investment, in order to manage and carry on the first part

of the development project, which includes the following elements:

• The “invention” (in fact, a proposal for a new industrial process) withits justification compared to the existing situation, its basic chemistryand mode of operation, and its implementation logic

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• A sufficient basis for the formal claims in a patent application, whichcan derive from a novel reasoning and/or of newly-discovered fac-tual evidence

• A bench-scale experimental demonstration of the novel aspects of theproposal, which could convince, or at least impress, experiencedscientists

• A preliminary technical, economical study of the proposal, whichindicates conclusively that its potential profitability should justify the necessary investment in the development program

• The promotion, i.e., the location of potentially interested tions, contacts and presentations, and negotiations of a commer-cial contract, until the project is sold and transferred to a corporateorganization

corpora-2.1.3 The second part

The second part of the project follows the transfer of the management andthe associated responsibility of the project to the corporation

The transfer, from the promoters in the first part (or period) to corporatemanagement in the second period, changes drastically the vision and rules

of the game This transfer could be a delicate procedure with many pitfalls, ascompletely different driving forces are operating during the development andimplementation of a novel industrial chemical process

In the first period, the promoters are mainly interested in all the

principal issues that could affect the elaboration of the rationale of theproject and the choices of possible implementation objectives Such issuescould determine the decision-making process of each of the prospectivecorporate candidates, and result in their buying and implementing theproject Obviously, the promoters, as a small group, have not the meansnor the time, and possibly not the ability to pursue in detail all of thepossible options

In the second period, on the other hand, the corporate project manager istaking over the decision-making, with the concrete task of optimizing thenovel process in one particular context, and building and operating a viable plant The manager has to cover every significant aspect of the developmentand implementation, but in a definitely limited scope

2.1.4 Public authorities

development in many countries For example, funds are made available

as grants, loans, or subsidies (i.e., tax credits) for industrial R&D budgetsand/or for risk capital companies, and these funds could facilitate thepromoters’ initiative or corporation incentive However, this procedurecould also introduce significant restrictions concerning the location andownership of the plant

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2.2 How a new process is born

The objective need for a new process and its potential application must firstbecome identified in one of the situations listed in Chapter 1, and becomeknown to the professionals in the field Only then will the subjective motivation

for an industrial invention be actuated in one or more of the following routeslisted below

Normal R&D activity creates a situation in which a better basic scientific understanding of the limitations of the existing industrial processes is systemati-cally associated with the study of similar developments, and with new

available data or technology in parallel fields When scientists are saturated withthis information, an idea may come to someone in the form of a proposal:

“Why can’t we do it better another way?”

This “click” is part of the functions normally expected from anyindustrial R&D group, albeit in a corporation, an academic department,

or an industrial research organization Nevertheless, the mechanism ofits occurrence is not well understood, and it is generally attributed toindividual characteristics (Despite much interest, most of the studies and dissertations devoted to this idea-generating psychology are related to artistic creation and apparently there is still no accepted theory as regard to scientific/industrial inventions.)

But not all such ideas are actually pursued Many (one would say most?)are impractical, premature, or incorrect in some aspect There is no discredit

in that, since a more fundamental study of the limits of the problem can only

be reached by raising these proposals Many potentially interesting ideascould also be stopped just for lack of follow-up by the initiator, who, forexample, could be too busy One of the main challenges of any R&D organi-zation is to have a proper forum and a routine procedure for the systematic recording and review of such ideas, which would then avoid any possible bias due

to personalities, positions, and past records

2.2.2 Personal motivation

The main driving force for a successful innovation (the invention, the tion, and the first steps) is without a doubt the personal motivation of themore-talented R&D scientists In addition to their genuine scientific curiosity

promo-and drive, a series of successful innovations is generally considered as a keyfor their personal advancement, their public recognition, and their personalsatisfaction It could also be linked to a financial bonus or other incentives

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of the industrial R&D organization is to create conditions in which their scientists would be interested in continuing to work there, effectively and for a

could concern nonscientist personalities as well There are no easy cuts

short-2.2.3 Corporate function

The managers of the dedicated corporate departments (R&D or “new ness”) have the role, the staff, and the budget to generate new projects, andthey are generally looking fornew ideas that may be worth promoting Thesenew subjects could be found internally by a continuous and systematiccovering of their defined territory, or from the outside by promoters whoare familiar with their corporate business field

busi-On the other hand, once their hands and means are more or less full (asdecided in advance by the yearly plans and budget), they have to find ways

to delay additional new proposals without causing too much ill will withthe promoters who are offering a golden opportunity More flexibility in thismatter could give better overall results

2.2.4 Financial and commercial rewards

Each participant in the promoter/developer group (external to the tion) is normally motivated by some financial reward, expected from a suc-cessful implementation, including buy-in at an early stage, development,and re-sale when ready

corpora-But some of the participants in this group also could have additionalcommercial considerations related to their other activities, such as thesupply of engineering services, the sale of proprietary equipment, theassignment of marketing rights, exclusivity in certain services, agent’scommission, and so forth Unless all of these interests are clear from thebeginning, they could lead to conflicts between the partners Such unpleas-ant cases are not uncommon; therefore, it is advisable to have a clear picture

of the situation at the onset of a joint venture to help promote an innovativeprocess development

2.2.5 False starts

It is generally recognized that, due to the pressures stated above, a very

and dropped sooner or later This situation could also happen to tional R&D scientists who, following reappraisal, will readily pull backtheir proposals (for the time being) and find other avenues for theirefforts There is no shame in such a decision, as this is an integral part

excep-of R&D work

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Unfortunately, some of these false starts may take a long time to die,wasting precious time The general efficiency of an industrial R&D organi-zation depends on the routine screening procedure for new ideas, preferably by

a peer reviewthat is more readily accepted than a manager’s ruling

2.3 Explicit definition of the development project

It is essential, at the beginning of every development project, to detail itly what the project will try to achieve and what would be considered a successful implementation

explic-This clearly written definition may be critical for the success of the entireproject, and the promoting group should give it utmost attention The firstbenefit will be that thorough discussions will force the group to focus itsproposals exactly toward objectives and procedures that are feasible in thisreal world This definition should include the following components listedbelow

2.3.1 Objectives and purposes

A quantitative definition of the actual objectives and purposes of the opment project, as compared with the known existing situation, may include,for instance:

devel-• Minimum specification of the new product or products

• Maximum acceptable production cost

• Minimum recovery of the valuable component

• Acceptable waste disposal, etc

2.3.2 Patents

There is no point, however, in starting a significant development effortunless there is a reasonable prospect for an eventual patent protection incase of positive results An adequate patent search and strategy should

be discussed and decided at an early stage, after consultation with therelevant experts This analysis should start with a clear statement anddefinition concerning:

• Extent of effective patent protection needed for the increasingly largeinvestments in industrial research and the potential profits

• The need to avoid some constrains in an existing patent

2.3.3 Possible industrial framework

A projection of the eventual (or possible, probable) industrial implementation

framework of the new process is needed to help cement the technological factors

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specific to that framework This projection, which will be continuouslyupdated with a compilation of more available details, generally includes:

• Scale of production, which affects the equipment size and function

• Different options of raw materials; availability of critical services

• Possible synergetic coproductions, local regulations, etc

In some cases, the initial projection of such framework may only bewishful thinking in the eyes of the promoters, as the corporation concernedmay not have been approached in the early stages But, at least, there should

be a reasonable assumed framework since, without it, the process ment would be mere speculation

develop-2.3.4 Timetable

In industrial reality, once the need for a new process has been recognizedand a feasible idea or proposal has been advanced and approved, theresults of the development effort should be delivered reasonably fast, despite the many complex issues and decisions that need to be resolved An often-citedgoal, before the detailed engineering of a new plant can be started, isbetween 12 and 24 months

A detailed time-table — desired or imperative — should be worked outand included in the particular project definition, listing all the differentprojected activities (see Section 2.4 Different stages of a typical program),the periodical review points, the change points in project management (pass-ing the torch), the requirement for introduction of additional support teams,and the emphasis on specific efforts

Note that the change in project management will generally require a fewmonths for systematic transmitting of know-how and of periodical summaryand review of the process package

2.4 Different stages of a typical program

The different stages of a typical development and implementation programare listed below relating to the author’s own experience Each of thesedifferent stages will be discussed in detail in the remaining chapters of thebook Of course, there could be many different situations relating to specificcase histories One should emphasize that in many new processes, therequirement for a comprehensive pilot work is essential to ensure a thoroughunderstanding of the effects of the different recycle streams

Note that this is not a simple procedure and there could be at least five reviews at different levels of responsibility and authority Each of thesereviews should be well prepared and be concluded either in a “no” (closingthe project) or a “maybe” (okay to proceed to the next step) decision Incertain cases, additional facts and information are required before a partic-ular review can be concluded

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2.5 Corporate management procedures for new projects

In recent years, a number of management procedures have been adopted inmost large corporations for the control of strategy, choice, and cost of devel-opment programs These procedures resulted mostly from the large number

Definition of the Objective Need for a New Process

• Study of the existing process

limitations, yielding the idea

• First review of the idea in the

promoting group

Okay to proceed Definition of the Development Project

• Grouping of the core project team

• Transformation of the idea into a

process-working definition

Feasibility Tests and Analysis

Negotiation, Agreement, and Transfer to the Corporation

Working Program Towards a First Implementation

• Market tests of the products

• Formal permits required

Process Package and Plant Design

• First plant design

• Modeling and optimization

• Critical piloting

Construction and Running-In

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of new product developments aimed at the consumers in an affluent society,such as electronic hardware and software, travel, household products, toysfor all ages, etc Large R&D budgets have been geared in this direction andthe different management schools have stepped in with recommendationsand procedures for “doing it better.”

Among the more known, commercially available management tools, forinstance, is the “Stage-Gate” system, propagated by Dr R G Cooper fornew product development This system combines certain strategic principlesand procedural steps for choosing the right product to develop from an assumed

program with “Gatekeepers,” all from inside the corporation, starting withthe “invention.”

There is no doubt that such management tools could be very useful tothe extent that they would force, step-by-step, the preparation of orderlydocuments, analyses, and reviews of all different aspects of the project Aftersuch preparation, the case will be better based, but the value of such deci-sions will still depend on the decision-makers

Although the approach described in this book for development of a new

chemical process to respond to a recognized need (as discussed in Chapter 1)have different emphasis, it is also based on stages and successive reviews.Therefore, the employees and consultants of corporations that have alreadyadopted one of the above mentioned R&D management procedures, such

as Stage-Gate, will find it easier to understand and assimilate the message

in this book, and to use the detailed recommendations within their corporatedirectives

2.6 Worth another thought

• The “invention” is, in fact, a “proposal” for a new industrial processwith its justification related to an existing situation, its basic chem-istry and mode of operation, and its implementation logic

• The transfer of decision-making from the promoters to the corporatemanagement can be a delicate procedure, as completely differentdriving forces are in power The promoters are mainly interested inthe “principal” issues affecting the project rationale and the possibleimplementation objectives Later, the corporate project manager has

to cover every significant aspect in a definitely limited scope, since

he has a concrete task of optimizing the novel process in one ular context: building and operating one viable plant

partic-• The R&D systematic activity associates a better basic scientific derstanding of the limitations of the existing industrial processeswith the study of similar developments and with new available data

un-or technology from parallel fields

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• One of the main challenges of any R&D organization is to have aproper forum and a routine procedure for the systematic recordingand reviewing of proposed ideas

• There is no point in starting a significant process development effortunless there is a reasonable prospect for an eventual patent protection(in case of positive results.)

• Without a projection of the eventual industrial implementationframework of the new process (scale of production, options of rawmaterials, availability of critical services, local regulations, etc.), theprocess development could be merely speculative

• The different stages of a typical development and implementationprogram would include at least five comprehensive reviews at dif-ferent levels of responsibility and authority, each ending with aNo/Maybe decision

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concerned When this author suggested it in a paper in 19721 after a year ofstruggling with a very difficult new plant start-up and after long nightsthinking why it went wrong, the thesis apparently touched a nerve, as anoverwhelming number of colleagues from around the world responded tothe idea.

institutes Until the final product (the thesis, the paper) is sent out, anyinteraction with other colleagues on the subject of research is done purely

on a voluntary basis Apart from his/her personal scientific curiosity anddrive, the external interests of each of the researchers are also obvious, i.e.,personal advancement and recognition, or the next research grant (At least

it was so before the epidemic of “start-up” ventures.)Applied R&D toward a new industrial process is very different, as the

timely contribution of many professional specialties is essential and critical toits success (after the first inventive steps) In many cases, this interaction isnot well understood by some professionals coming from academic researchand this has often been a major source of problems Therefore, it is important

to discuss this “fact-of-life” in detail in this chapter, together with the tial resources needed for the process development, up to the decision tobuild a new plant

essen-1360_frame_C03 Page 23 Monday, April 29, 2002 3:35 PM

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3.2 Specific managerial skills

A qualified and efficient manager for aprocess development project rates certain personal qualities and professional experience, since he/she has

incorpo-to deal with a different and special management challenge The manager ofsuch a process development project needs to:

• Mediate the essential work and the temperamental egos of individualpersonalities (inventors, promoters, experts), as well as the orderlycoordination and interaction between many different disciplines andfunctions, and of proper formalities, records, and communication

• Report upwards and find his way through the internal politics of alarge corporation, in which every director may have his own vision

• Have an extensive and diversified background in the basic sciences, in the

engineering disciplines, in project control, and in plant operations

• Be willing to learn something new every day from every new situation

• Assume his first project management responsibility preferably afterhis participation in several similar projects, as a professional engineerand as assistant project manager

Managing a project long term is generally an exhausting experience,

so a successful project manager expects after that and generally gets apromotion to a less-demanding job The scarcity of qualified managers isgenerally recognized as a critical bottleneck in many organizations A not-so-qualified individual also may succeed, but he/she should be ready toask for advice when needed and have adequate support from managementand external consultants

3.3 Core project team

The core project team consists of all the members reporting directly to theproject manager and working full time (or at least most of their time) on theproject This core team generally includes, in addition to the project man-ager’s executive assistants, people from other departments and organiza-tions who are temporarily delegated and integrated into the project team forthis particular project For example:

• Inventors and researchers from the R&D promoting team who arecontinuing to work with the project team as long as they are needed,bringing with them their scientific knowledge of the subject and help-ing in the coordination of future R&D activities, along with the processengineers who are taking over the continuation of the process design

• A specialist from the products’ marketing organization who is assisting

in pinpointing the market needs and supervising the product’s testing

• A number of process chemical engineers from the engineering partment (or division or selected company) who are in the interim

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Tiêu đề	Developing an Industrial Chemical Process An Integrated Approach
Tác giả	Joseph Mizrahi
Trường học	CRC Press LLC
Chuyên ngành	Chemical Engineering
Thể loại	Book
Năm xuất bản	2002
Thành phố	Boca Raton

Định dạng
Số trang	230
Dung lượng	3,8 MB