glocalized solutions for sustainability in manufacturing

xiii a Keynotes a Automotive Life Cycle Engineering Assessment of Energy and Resource Consumption of Processes and Process Chains within the Automotive Sector .... Electricity meteri

Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing

Jürgen Hesselbach • Christoph Herrmann

in Manufacturing

Editors

Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability

Proceedings of the 18th CIRP International Conference Braunschweig, Germany, May 2nd - 4th, 2011

on Life Cycle Engineering,

Technische Universität Braunschweig,

ISBN 978-3-642-19691-1 e-ISBN 978-3-642-19692-8

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-19692-8

Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York

This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,

permission for use must always be obtained from Springer Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use

Cover design:eStudio Calamar S.L

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

Editors

PD Dr.-Ing Christoph Herrmann Prof Dr.-Ing Dr h.c Jürgen Hesselbach

Technische Universität Braunschweig

Technische Universität Braunschweig

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011924877

„[Sein] Kampf um Klarheit und Übersicht hat ungemein dazu beigetragen, die Probleme,

results of science into life.”

Albert Einstein on the 70th birthday of Arnold Berliner Die Naturwissenschaften (The Science of Nature),Vol.20/51,

Springer, Berlin (1932)

Globalization, rapid developments in information technology, fast process- and product innovations, changing market requirements (e.g environmental policies, increasing energy- and raw material costs) as well as global challenges, as the growing world population and the intensive use of limited resources, determine the surrounding conditions of producing companies in the 21st century The comprehension for the resulting complex structures of social, political, economic, technical, ecological and organizational coherences increases with growing insights gained from natural sciences and technology

“Sustainable development” describes a way of how the needs of today’s generations can be satisfied without interfering with the possibilities of future generations In order to follow this path, “ecological” change processes have to take place in society and economy

“Sustainable economies” require innovative products and processes and a life-cycle-oriented way of thinking and acting or rather a way of thinking and acting in terms of systems, i.e in value chains and -networks embedded in the natural environment Only by this means the shifting of problems can be avoided and integrated solutions can be created This way of thinking and acting does not end with the customer, but proceeds up to the disposal of products and handling of materials and products and/or product parts in life cycles Decisions

on the planning and design of products and processes also have to be made in an integrated manner This means that technical, economic and ecological aspects have to be integrated into one approach This should be accomplished under a ”cradle-to-cradle” view – from the raw materials extraction up to end-of-life This view should take into account not only the manufactured products but also the equipment and auxiliary materials which are necessary for production (e.g machine tools, cooling lubricants)

For this year’s conference we chose the theme “Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing” The term “glocalization” is a combination of the words “globalization” and “localization” It was invented to describe a product or service design developed and distributed globally and also adapted specifically to each locality or culture it is marketed in However, “Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing“ do not only involve products or services that are changed for a local market by simple substitution or the omitting of functions We want to address products and services that ensure a high standard of living everywhere Resources required for manufacturing and use of such products are limited and not evenly distributed in the world Locally available resources, local capabilities as well as local constraints have to be drivers for product- and process innovations

Thus, “Best of Local” is a starting point for glocalized solutions This means for example that the availability of fuels based on biomass is a starting point for engine development in Brazil, whereas solar energy is going to be the most important energy source for future electric vehicles in countries of the earth’s sun belt (up to 35 degrees north and south of the equator) While water-based cooling lubricants are developed in Germany, technical animal fats and used edible fats are the basis for the production of cooling lubricants in Spain Dandelion

is used for the production of rubber; thus, car tires develop from renewable resources The crushed hard shells of fruit stones (e.g cherry stones) serve as filling material for polymers or are used as technical abrasives for the cleaning of surfaces Locally accumulating waste streams are locally processed into new products Thus, old PET bottles are not only recycled into world cup soccer shirts, but also into laptop bags However, the use of resources is always linked to the environmental impact over all stages of a product life cycle from material extraction, transport and manufacturing to usage and to the end-of-life Even if a local scope for design is always linked to global impacts, it has the potential to reduce the impact to an ecologically compatible minimum Future glocalized engineering solutions will have the potential to address global challenges by providing products, services and processes that take into account local capabilities and constraints to achieve an economically, socially and environmentally sustainable society in a global perspective

The CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering is a platform for this wide and complex field It will require the efforts of all of

us to bring the problems, methods and results of Life Cycle Engineering into life

Preface v a

Organization xiii

a

Keynotes

a

Automotive Life Cycle Engineering

Assessment of Energy and Resource Consumption of Processes and Process Chains within the Automotive Sector 45

R Schlosser, F Klocke, B Döbbeler, B Riemer, K Hameyer, T Herold, W Zimmermann, O Nuding, B A Schindler, M Niemczyk

Assessment of Alternative Propulsion Systems for Vehicles 51

C Herrmann, K S Sangwan, M Mennenga, P Halubek, P Egede

Concept and Development of Intelligent Production Control to enable Versatile Production in the Automotive Factories of the Future 57

S U H Minhas, C Lehmann, U Berger

Resource Efficiency – what are the Objectives? 63

M Gernuks

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Remanufacturing and New Manufacturing of a Manual Transmission 67

J Warsen, M Laumer, W Momberg

a

Automotive Life Cycle Engineering - Recycling

Coordination of Design-for-Recycling Activities in Decentralized Product Design Processes in the Automotive Industry 73

K Schmidt, T Volling, T S Spengler

A Strategic Framework for the Design of Recycling Networks for Lithium-Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles 79

C Hoyer, K Kieckhäfer, T S Spengler

Recovery of Active Materials from Spent Lithium-Ion Electrodes and Electrode Production Rejects 85

C Hanisch, W Haselrieder, A Kwade

New Technologies for Remanufacturing of Automotive Systems Communicating via CAN Bus 90

R Steinhilper, S Freiberger, M Albrecht, J Käufl, E Binder, C Brückner

LCM applied to Auto Shredder Residue (ASR) 96

L Morselli, A Santini, F Passarini, I Vassura, L Ciacci

Electricity Metering and Monitoring in Manufacturing Systems 1

Manufacturing and the Science of Sustainability 32

Indian Solar Thermal Technology – Technology to Protect Environment and Ecology 40

D Gadhia

Implementing life Cycle Engineering efficiently into Automotive Endustry Processes 11

Solvis Zero-Emission Factory - The 'Solvis way' - Structure and Subject 29

T G Gutowski

S Kara, G Bogdanski, W Li

Life Cycle Design - Methods and Tools

Eco-Innovation by Integrating Biomimetic with TRIZ Ideality and Evolution Rules 101

J L Chen, Y.-C Yang

Reasoning New Eco-Products by Integrating TRIZ with CBR and Simple LCA Methods 107

C J Yang , J L Chen

Proposal of an Integrated Eco-Design Framework of Products and Processes 113

S Kondoh, N Mishima

Development of CAD System for Life Cycle Scenario-Based Product Design 118

E Kunii, S Fukushige, Y Umeda

Environmental Impact Assessment Model for Wireless Sensor Networks 124

J Bonvoisin, A Lelah, F Mathieux, D Brissaud

Considering the Social Dimension in Environmental Design 130

L Domingo, D Evrard, F Mathieux, G Moenne-Loccoz

Improving Product Design based on Energy Considerations 154

Y Seow, S Rahimifard

Eco-Design Tool to support the Use of Renewable Polymers within Packaging Applications 160

J Colwill, S Rahimifard, A Clegg

A

Life Cycle Design - Selected Applications

State-of-the-art Ecodesign on the Electronics Shop Shelves? A Quantitative Analysis of Developments in Ecodesign of TV Sets 167

C Boks, R Wever, A Stevels

Simultaneous Application of Design for Sustainable Behavior and Linked Benefit Strategies in Practice 173

J Schmalz, C Boks

Strategic Evaluation of Manufacturing Technologies 179

G Reinhart, S Schindler, P Krebs

Consideration of the Precautionary Principle – the Responsible Development of Nano Technologies 185

M Weil

Proposal of a Design Support Method for Sustainability Scenarios 1st Report: Designing Forecasting Scenarios 189

H Wada, Y Kishita, Y Mizuno, M Hirosaki, S Fukushige, Y Umeda

a

Sustainability in Manufacturing

Evaluating Trade-Offs Between Sustainability, Performance, and Cost of Green Machining Technologies 195

M Helu, J Rühl, D Dornfeld, P Werner, G Lanza

Sustainable Production by Integrating Business Models of Manufacturing and Recycling Industries 201

C Jonsson, J Felix , A Sundelin , B Johansson

Life Cycle Engineering – Integration of New Products on Existing Production Systems in Automotive Industry 207

W Walla, J Kiefer

Managing Sustainability in Product Design and Manufacturing 213

K Ioannou, A Veshagh

A System for Resource Efficient Process Planning for Wire EDM 219

S Dhanik, P Xirouchakis, R Perez

Increased Trustability of Reliability Prognoses for Machine Tools 225

G Lanza, P Werner, D Appel, B Behmann

Table of Contentsviii

Hidden Aspects of Industrial Packaging - The Driving Forces behind Packaging Selection Processes at Industrial Packaging Suppliers 229

Applying Functionally Graded Materials by Laser Cladding: a cost-effective way to improve the Lifetime of Die-Casting

Dies 235

S Müller, H Pries, K Dilger, S Ocylok, A Weisheit, I Kelbassa

A Total Life-Cycle Approach towards Developing Product Metrics for Sustainable Manufacturing 240

A Gupta, A D Jayal, M Chimienti, I S Jawahir

Carbon Footprint Analysis for Energy Improvement in Flour Milling Production 246

C W P Shi, F Rugrungruang, Z Yeo, B Song

a

Sustainability in Manufacturing - Energy Efficiency in Machine Tools

Modelling Machine Tools for Self-Optimisation of Energy Consumption 253

R Schmitt, J L Bittencourt, R Bonefeld

Energy-Efficient Machine Tools through Simulation in the Design Process 258

C Eisele, S Schrems, E Abele

Energy Consumption Characterization and Reduction Strategies for Milling Machine Tool Use 263

N Diaz, E Redelsheimer, D Dornfeld

An Investigation into Fixed Energy Consumption of Machine Tools 268

W Li, A Zein, S Kara, C Herrmann

Energy Efficiency Measures for the Design and Operation of Machine Tools: An Axiomatic Approach 274

Analyzing Energy Consumption of Machine Tool Spindle Units and Identification of Potential for Improvements of

Efficiency 280

E Abele, T Sielaff, A Schiffler, S Rothenbücher

a

Sustainability in Manufacturing - Energy Efficiency in Process Chains

Energy Consumption as One Possible Exclusion Criterion for the Reuse of Old Equipment in New Production Lines 287

L Weyand, H Bley, M Swat, K Trapp, D Bähre

Optimizing Energy Costs by Intelligent Production Scheduling 293

A Pechmann, I Schöler

Methodology for an Energy and Resource Efficient Process Chain Design 299

S Schrems, C Eisele, E Abele

A New Shop Scheduling Approach in Support of Sustainable Manufacturing 305

K Fang, N Uhan, F Zhao, J W Sutherland

Comparison of the Resource Efficiency of Alternative Process Chains for Surface Hardening 311

G Reinhart, S Reinhardt, T Föckerer, M F Zäh

Synergies from Process and Energy Oriented Process Chain Simulation – A Case Study from the Aluminium Die Casting Industry 317

C Herrmann, T Heinemann, S Thiede

a

Sustainability in Manufacturing - Methods and Tools for Energy Efficiency

Context-Aware Analysis Approach to Enhance Industrial Smart Metering 323

C Herrmann, S.-H Suh, G Bogdanski, A Zein, J.-M Cha, J Um, S Jeong, A Guzman

Exergy Efficiency Definitions for Manufacturing Processes 329

Renaldi, K Kellens, W Dewulf, J R Duflou

State of Research and an innovative Approach for simulating Energy Flows of Manufacturing Systems 335

S Thiede, C Herrmann, S Kara

Modular Modeling of Energy Consumption for Monitoring and Control 341

A Verl, E Abele, U Heisel, A Dietmair, P Eberspächer, R Rahäuser, S Schrems, S Braun

Architecture for Multilevel Monitoring and Control of Energy Consumption 347

A Verl, E Westkämper, E Abele, A Dietmair, J Schlechtendahl, J Friedrich, H Haag, S Schrems

S S Casell

A Zein, W Li, C Herrmann, S Kara

Sustainability in Manufacturing - Selected Applications

Green Performance Map – An Industrial Tool for Enhancing Environmental Improvements within a Production System 353

K Romvall, M Kurdve, M Bellgran, J Wictorsson

Analysis and Quantification of Improvement in Green Manufacturing Process of Silicon Nitride Products 359

N Mishima, S Kondoh, H Hyuga, Y Zhou, K Hirao

Evaluation of the Environmental Impact of different Lubrorefrigeration Conditions in Milling of γ-TiAl Alloy 365

G Rotella, P C Priarone, S Rizzuti, L Settineri

Quantitative and Qualitative Benefits of Green Manufacturing: an Empirical Study of Indian Small and Medium Enterprises 371

K S Sangwan

Preliminary Environmental Assessment of Electrical Discharge Machining 377

K Kellens, Renaldi, W Dewulf, J R Duflou

Development of an Interpretive Structural Model of Obstacles to Environmentally Conscious Technology adoption in Indian Industry 383

V K Mittal, K S Sangwan

Identifying Carbon Footprint Reduction Opportunities through Energy Measurements in Sheet Metal Part Manufacturing 389

C W P Shi, F Rugrungruang, Z Yeo, K H K Gwee, R Ng, B Song

Sustainable Production Research - a Proposed Method to design the Sustainability Measures 395

Green Production of CFRP Parts by Application of Inductive Heating 401

M Frauenhofer, S Kreling, H Kunz, K Dilger

Saving Potential of Water for Foundry Sand Using Treated Coolant Water 407

a

End of Life Management - Reuse and Remanufacturing

Modular Grouping Exploration to design Remanufacturable Products 413

N Tchertchian, D Millet, O Pialot

Development of Part Agents for the Promotion of Reuse of Parts through Experiment and Simulation 419

H Hiraoka, K Ito, K Nishida, K Horii, Y Shigeji

Systematic Categorization of Reuse and Identification of Issues in Reuse Management in the Closed Loop Manufacturing 425

T Sakai, S Takata

Approach for Integration of Sustainability Aspects into Innovation Processes 431

S Severengiz, P Gausemeier, G Seliger, F A Pereira

Remanufacturing Engineering Literature Overview and Future Research Needs 437

Q Ke, H.-C Zhang, G Liu, B Li

a

End of Life Management - Selected Applications

Effects of Lateral Transshipments in Multi-Echelon Closed-Loop Supply Chains 443

K Tracht, M Mederer, D Schneider

Development of an Interpretive Structural Model of Barriers to Reverse Logistics Implementation in Indian Industry 448

A Jindal, K S Sangwan

Recycling of LCD Screens in Europe - State of the Art and Challenges 454

S Salhofer, M Spitzbart, K Maurer

End of Life Strategies in the Aviation Industry 459

J Feldhusen, J Pollmanns, J E Heller

Contribution of Recycling Processes to Sustainable Resource Management 465

A Pehlken, K.-D Thoben

Business Issues in Remanufacturing: Two Brazilian Cases in the Automotive Industry 470

O T Oiko, A P B Barquet, A R Ometto

A Systematic Investigation for Reducing Shredder Residue for Complex Automotive Seat Subassemblies 476

S Barakat, J Urbanic

Eco Quality Polymers-EQP 482

C Luttropp, E Strömberg

Table of Contentsx

M K Wedel, B Johansson, A Dagman, J Stahre

J O Gomes, V E O Gomes, J F de Souza, E Y Kawachi

Intelligent Products to Support Closed-Loop Reverse Logistics 486

K A Hribernik, M von Stietencron, C Hans, K.-D Thoben

The Prospects of Managing WEEE in Indonesia 492

J Hanafi, H J Kristina, E Jobiliong, A Christiani, A V Halim, D Santoso, E Melini

Medical Electrical Equipment - Good Refurbishment Practice at Siemens AG Healthcare 497

M Plumeyer, M Braun

a

Information and Knowledge Management

Sustainable Product Lifecycle Management: A Lifecycle based Conception of Monitoring a Sustainable Product

Development 501

M Eigner, M von Hauff, P D Schäfer

Semantic Web Based Dynamic Energy Analysis and Forecasts in Manufacturing Engineering 507

K Wenzel, J Riegel, A Schlegel, M Putz

Energy Data Acquisition and Utilization for Energy-Oriented Product Data Management 513

T Reichel, G Rünger, D Steger, U Frieß, M Wabner

Integrating Energy-Saving Process Chains and Product Data Models 519

G Rünger, A Schubert, S Goller, B Krellner, D Steger

Challenges in Data Management in Product Life Cycle Engineering 525

T Fasoli, S Terzi, E Jantunen, J Kortelainen, J Sääski, T Salonen

Business Game for Total Life Cycle Management 531

S Böhme, T Heinemann, C Herrmann, M Mennenga, R Nohr, J Othmer

Requirements Management – a Premise for adequate Life Cycle Design 537

S Klute, C Kolbe, R Refflinghaus

Towards a Methodology for Analyzing Sustainability Standards using the Zachman Framework 543

S Rachuri, P Sarkar, A Narayanan, J H Lee, P Witherell

Sustainability through Next Generation PLM in Telecommunications Industry 549

J Golovatchev, O Budde

Challenges of an Efficient Data Management for Sustainable Product Design 554

T Leitner, M Stachura, A Schiffleitner, N Stein

Product and Policy Life Cycle Inventories with Market Driven Demand: An Engine Selection Case Study 558

H Grimes-Casey, C Girata, K Whitefoot, G A Keloeian, J J Winebrake, S J Skerlos

A Case-Study: Finding References to Product Development Knowledge from Analysis of Face-to-Face Meetings 564

B Piorkowski, J Gao, R Evans

a

Life Cycle Assessment - Methods and Tools

CAD-Integrated LCA Tool: Comparison with dedicated LCA Software and Guidelines for the Improvement 569

A Morbidoni, C Favi, M Germani

Comparison of two LCA Methodologies in the Machine-Tools Environmental Performance Improvement Process 575

M Azevedo, M Oliveira, J P Pereira, A Reis

Developing Impact Assessment Methods: an Approach for addressing inherent Problems 581

M Toxopeus, V Kickert, E Lutters

Developing a Conceptual Framework for UT based LCA 587

J.-M Cha, S.-H Suh

Towards the Integration of Local and Global Environmental Assessment Methods: Application to Computer System Power Management 593

V Moreau, N Gondran, V Laforest

Cradle to Cradle and LCA – is there a Conflict? 599

A Bjørn, M Z Hauschild

Life Cycle Assessment - Selected Applications

Environmental Assessment of Printed Circuit Boards from Biobased Materials 605

Y Deng, K Van Acker, W Dewulf, J R Duflou

Application of Life Cycle Engineering for the Comparison of Biodegradable Polymers Injection Moulding

Performance 611

D Almeida, P Peças, I Ribeiro, P Teixeira, E Henriques

Using Ecological Assessment during the Conceptual Design Phase of Chemical Processes – a Case Study 617

L Grundemann, J C Kuschnerow, T Brinkmann, S Scholl

Environmental Footprint of Single-Use Surgical Instruments in Comparison with Multi-Use Surgical Instruments 623

J Schulz, J Pschorn, S Kara, C Herrmann, S Ibbotson, T Dettmer, T Luger

Comparative Carbon Footprint Assessment of Door made from Recycled Wood Waste versus Virgin Hardwood: Case Study

of a Singapore Wood Waste Recycling Plant 629

R Ng, C W P Shi, J S C Low, H M Lee, B Song

a

Life Cycle Costing

A Target Costing-Based Approach for Design to Energy Efficiency 635

A Bierer, U Götze

Life Cycle Costing Assessment with both Internal and External Costs Estimation 641

S Martinez, M Hassanzadeh, Y Bouzidi, N Antheaume

Environmental and Economic Evaluation of Solar Thermal Panels using Exergy and Dimensional Analysis 647

G Medyna, E Coatanea, D Millet

Implications of Material Flow Cost Accounting for Life Cycle Engineering 652

T Viere, M Prox, A Möller, M Schmidt

a

Life Cycle Costing - Modelling

Aircraft Engine Component Deterioration and Life Cycle Cost Estimation 657

Y Zhao, A Harrison, R Roy, J Mehnen

Life Cycle Cost Estimation using a Modeling Tool for the Design of Control Systems 663

H Komoto, T Tomiyama

Assessing the Value of Sub-System Technologies including Life Cycle Alternatives 669

A Bertoni, O Isaksson, M Bertoni, T Larsson

Costing for Avionic Through-Life Availability 675

L Newnes, A Mileham, G Rees, P Green

Eco Global Evaluation: Cross Benefits of Economic and Ecological Evaluation 681

N Perry, A Bernard, M Bosch-Mauchand, J LeDuigou, Y Xu

A

Index of Authors 687

Table of Contentsxii

Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing Mark Mennenga

Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing Tim Heinemann

Organizing Committee

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

S Kara1, 2, G Bogdanski1, 3, W Li1, 2

University of New South Wales, Australia

Technische Universität Braunschweig, Germany

Abstract

Traditionally, electricity costs in manufacturing have been considered as an overhead cost In the last decade, the

manufacturing industry has witnessed a dramatic increase in electricity costs, which can no longer be treated as an

overhead, but a valuable resource to be managed strategically However, this can only be achieved by strategically

gathering electricity consumption data by metering and monitoring This keynote paper presents the latest

developments and challenges in electricity metering and monitoring systems and standards in the context of

manufacturing systems An industry case is presented to emphasise the challenges and the possible solutions to

address them

Keywords:

Manufacturing Systems; Energy Efficiency; Metering and Monitoring

1 INTRODUCTION

Global warming and its disastrous environmental and economic

effects are considered as one of the major challenges that today’s

and future generations have to face during the 21 century One of

the main attribute of this challenge is due to the environmental

impact e.g Green House Gas (GWP) emission, caused during the

generation of electricity from fossil fuels [1] Therefore, one of the

possible ways to reduce GWP emission is to reduce the electricity

consumption, which is also enforced by national and international

initiatives, e.g Kyoto agreement In addition, industry has a high

interest in reducing the energy consumption, because energy has

become a major cost driver, especially for high technology

industries with their energy intensive manufacturing processes

Energy cost has long been treated as a necessary overhead cost

for creating value-added products However, more and more

industrial companies are consciously shifting towards treating

energy as a valuable resource, which needs to be planned and

managed as a variable input for their plant A necessary

prerequisite for such energy-conscious behaviour is to be able to

systematically measure energy consumption in a manufacturing

plant One of the challenges plant managers facing today is to gain

transparency inside complex energy distribution networks of their

manufacturing plants A fundamental prerequisite for achieving this

transparency is primarily to meter the consumed energy and its

related characteristics in time In order to gain full awareness, the

metered physical values need to be monitored, interpreted and

visualized in plant management systems

be converted into many lower energy forms such as heat, light,

compressed air, mechanical torque and many others Consumption

of electrical energy, in comparison to other energy forms, can be

measured easily and precisely Therefore, other energy forms are

usually converted by sensors and transducers into electrical signals

which themselves can be picked up by standard procedures of

electrical signal metering techniques

In this paper the evolution and the latest development in electricity

metering and monitoring technologies are first introduced A rapid development in measurement instruments requires up-to-date standards in order to compare and select appropriate device After giving an overview about the most relevant international and national standards, the potentials of electricity metering and monitoring in manufacturing plants are illustrated and technical requirements for metering and monitoring systems are presented The most important aspects that need to be considered when designing metering strategies are highlighted with a case study from an Australian manufacturing company

2 EVOLUTION OF ELECTRICITY MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING

Since the introduction of electricity distribution grids, there has been

a demand for devices to measure the energy consumption in order

to assist suppliers for distributing, pricing and monitoring their service As early as during the 1880s, companies were authorized

to sell electricity One of the first patents for an electricity meter had been taken out by Pulvermacher in 1868 for an electrolytic meter [2] Besides the electrolytic meters, there were other early inventions for measuring electricity, for instance thermal meters, clock meters and motor meters In 1884 the Aron Meter Co started selling the first meters of the true dynamometer type electricity meter patented by Hermann Aron They were considered to have the highest degree of accuracy of the available meters at that time

As one form of the motor meters, the induction meter (Ferraris disc meter), had emerged to meet the needs of the emerging multi-phase generation and transmission of electric power for high precision Alternating Current (AC) meters The induction meter is still in general use today but is reaching its limits of accuracy and lacking ability to communicate its metering values Recent developments try to meet the demands of the evolving smart grid technology calling for multi-value measurement and bi-directional communication ability [3] The advances in semiconductor technology have led to the technological overrun of bulky electro-mechanical meters by smaller dimensioned, solely electronic metering devices by the early 1990s By removing all complex

1

J Hesselbach and C Herrmann (eds.), Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing: Proceedings of the 18th CIRP International

Electrical energy is in high favour of industry because it can easily

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-19692-8_1, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, May 2nd - 4th, 2011,

moving mechanical parts, the electronic meters are able to house

multi-sensors within highly integrated circuits [4]

For simple kilowatt-hour metering the electromechanical meters

such as Ferraris disc meters, are still considered to be the most

economical solution because of its extremely long life and durability

[5-6] The metering industry has been trying to lengthen the

technology life of the predominant electromechanical technology by

using hybrid solutions, e.g adding electronics to the present

devices, to fulfil additional functions like maximum demand

calculations as demanded by today’s suppliers to price industry and

medium to large sized commercial electricity customers [6] With

the help of add-on electronics, hybrid meters can provide their

users various other functions such as multi-rate registers, seasonal

registers, historical value registers, maximum demand, and

consumptions threshold definition The inevitable next step in the

evolution of electricity meters is the electronic meters In contrast to

electromechanical meters different principles are used to measure

the basic values of electricity, from which all other values of interest

are usually derived by means of electronic calculation Basic

elements for each power phase are:

such as current and voltage

 multiplier for the instantaneous measurement values

 time to frequency converters for voltage and current [6]

The overall structure of measuring elements of electronic meters is

basically the same However, the applied measurement techniques

are, in contrast to electromechanical metering systems, very

different The multiplication of voltage and current for example can

be done by a hall multiplier, a time division multiplier or digital

multiplier [5-6] Providing at least the same functionality as hybrid

meters the electronic meters aim at offering extended information to

the user This is done through digital signal processing by means of

microprocessors or customized integrated circuits The digital

circuitry can perform time accurate calculation of active, reactive,

apparent energy and power factor as well as frequency and

harmonic distortion metering with many mathematical functionalities

such as averaging, min/max detection, integration and

accumulation [4, 6] All performed metering is provided to serve for

billing and controlling of the supplied and used electrical energy

The application of different measurement principles and individually

designed integrated circuitry in metering devices calls for national

and international standards to allow users to verify their metered

value in accordance to approved limitations As an example for

international standards, the IEC 62053 and the ANSI C12.20

mandates the accuracy of static watt-hour meters and have defined

four different classes: class 2, class 1, class 0.5 and class 0.2 (e.g

class 0.5 requires a repeatable meter precision of 0.5% of nominal

current and voltage) [7-8] The revised German VDE 0410 had even

clustered these classes into utility measurement ranging from class

1 to class 5 and into precision measurement ranging from class 0.1

to class 0.5 for directly indicating metering devices with a scale The

VDE 0410 has been overworked in the IEC 60051, within a much

more comprehensive international standard for direct acting

analogue electrical measuring instruments [9-10]

The electrical meters measurement chain is subject to an error of

the measurement chain, expressed in the accuracy G, indicated by

the class and enabling the user to calculate the limitations of

maximum and minimum deviation ∆x inside a given metering

Current digital electricity meters available on the market already

claim to some extent, to meet the accuracy limitation of 0.1% or

lower, causing buyers to be confused because there is no existing international standard of 0.1% accuracy which a manufacturer could claim compliance to [11] Therefore, standards need to keep up the pace of technological innovation in order to ensure that metering equipment buyers are able to compare and benchmark claimed accuracy by providing manufacturers a specified set of tests over the whole range of operation conditions of load current, power factor, temperature and harmonic distortion

3 PURPOSE OF ELECTRICITY MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING IN INDUSTRY

Electricity metering and monitoring in industrial applications address

a wide range of applications, which can be divided into three broad levels of application:

 Unit Process Level

In general, from the customer perspective, metering and monitoring

of electricity in industry applications is done to gain transparency into electricity billing, internal electricity distribution and energy controlling Each of the three stated levels above contains its own set of technical requirements concerning the metering equipment and the attached monitoring system They also have their own associated potential benefits and degree of transparency requirement from the application of electricity metering and

perspective with all its organisational sub-consumers within the three levels

Figure 1: Three levels of a factory as a consumer of electricity The most important fact that needs to be stated is that the organisational structure rarely complies with the technical electricity distribution network, which brings additional challenges during department level electricity metering and monitoring which will be discussed later

What all three levels have in common in relation to metering electricity is the basic measurement values that all other specific information can be mathematically driven from: voltage and current with respect to time For instance, in a general 3 phase system, the

PW tot = PW1 + PW2 + PW3 (2) = U1N eff I1 eff cos φ1 + U2N eff I2 eff cos φ2

Factory

… Department 1 Department n

Department 1.1 Sub- Department 1.m

Sub-

…

Department n.1 Sub- Department n.m

Sub-Machine

Machine i Periphery System 1

Periphery System j

• …

• energy modelling

• process simulation

• machine efficiency redesign

•

Organizational level structure

Keynotes2

Where φ n is the phase angle between the current I n and the voltage

to meter only two lines because one line can be seen as the

neutral Nevertheless, it is often seen that 3-phase-systems are

also equipped with three separate power meters to monitor three

phases and to ensure a higher accuracy of the metering result,

especially at low powers and high phase angles [12] The accuracy

of a measurement is therefore always directly related to the

accuracy of the current and voltage measurement error and needs

to be calculated accordingly

current and voltage meters to prevent them from accidental

overload from harming the sensitive metering equipment The most

widespread application to realize a galvanic isolation is a simple

current and voltage transformer which is going into saturation if an

overload is applied on the primary windings The secondary

windings are short circuited by the current meter The

transformation rate is generally dimensioned to conduct 1 or 5 A

(current meter) and 100 V (voltage meter) on the secondary

windings

The transformers are also regarded as part of the measuring chain

and are also adding their own error in terms of accuracy limitation to

the total measurement system The IEC 60044-1 is dealing with the

technical requirements of current transformers for instruments as

well as their indicated accuracy classes [13] Assuming a normal

distribution of the measurement errors of the components, the total

G inst:

Gtot = ( Gtrans2 + Ginst2 )1/2 (4)

The error of a current transformer is actually consisting of a basic

error, which can be very low in a good technically designed

transformer, and an angular error, which is highly dependent on the

applied apparent current burden [12] The following section will

present a more specific view on the potential gains from metering and monitoring applications on the three organizational levels Recent publications show, that the industrialized countries are facing a multidimensional pressure from the economical, ecological

as well as legislative side to shift their field of actions more towards energy and resource efficient processes and structures within their company, their products and their services to stay competitive in the global market environment

3.1 Factory Level

The electricity metering and monitoring on factory level is done on the interface between the electricity supplier and the consumer (factory inlet) Electricity is an energy resource that is demanded by the manufacturing industry ever since the light bulb was invented and the establishment of the electricity industry in the late nineteenth century With the rising demand, quality and the continuity of the supply have become a serious concern [14] As a result, today’s electricity grid and the supply of electric voltage are standardized within different regulations For instance in Europe, the EN 50160 written by the European Electrotechnical Standards Body CENELEC is used [15] The EN 50160 address the electric voltage as a good and the quality has to be ensured in the provision

to the customer Otherwise the customer would be able to claim a better product quality from the supplier Electricity is a very unique product, being produced, delivered and used at the same instant of time [14] Due to a high level of dependence on electric voltage supply, the industry and the public have to be sure that they can operate their electrical equipment without incurring additional capital expenditures due to a lack of quality in the electricity supply from the low (LV) and the medium voltage (MV) grids The voltage quality can be imagined as the usability of electrical energy without interruptions The subject of voltage quality is becoming more and more important in highly developed countries, because of the increased use of applications, which are very sensitive to disturbances of the voltage amplitude or of the voltage wave shape [16] In order to check the quality of the electrical voltage supplied

to the customer according to the given characteristics of the EN

50160, metering equipment suitable for that task needs to be

that brings in another important aspect of modern digital electricity meters – the resolution in time [4] A high resolution of metering data can be ensured by a high sampling rate of the analogue-digital circuitry and a short settling time of any analogue components like the current and the voltage transformers and the amplification circuits

Table 1: Summary of electricity specifications from EN 50160 and related measurement intervals from Shtargot [4]

On the factory level, several aspects of the electric energy are

essential to be metered in order to gain the certain state of

transparency of the factory’s energy consumption from a holistic

perspective [17-18]

electricity consumption on the factory level and possible potential

benefits that can be achieved by gaining a certain level of

By using a simple initial monitoring and controlling of consumption

the electricity consumer will be able to address the problems on

time and not retrospectively after receiving the bill Electricity

metering and monitoring on the factory level enables the consumer

to check the quality characteristics of the supplied product and

enables him to gain an important amount of transparency for time

dependent controlling of energy consumption

Factory level:

demand, power factor limitation, THD feedback

Potential benefits

enabled through

electricity metering

Adaption of the electricity supply contract;

preventing of peak charges through rescheduling of processes or events Table 2: Cost factors and potential benefits through electricity

metering and monitoring on factory level

3.2 Department level

The department level structure usually consists of n departments

the major cost factors concerning electricity and related potential

benefits through electricity metering and monitoring on department

level

Department level:

demand, power factor limitation Potential benefits

enabled through

electricity metering

Energy intensive process scheduling;

ability to deploy and track continuous improvement measures; department based energy saving targeting and benchmarking;

simulative improvement of energy costing;

effective utilization of secondary energy carriers produced by electricity; quantify energy savings

Table 3: Cost factors and potential benefits through electricity

metering and monitoring on department level

metering and energy accounting, known from private households

The main goal is to try shortening the informational feedback time

from the consumption of energy to the moment of billing [19] For

industry the simple monitoring is already a big leap forward to raise

the corporate awareness and to motivate each individual to

minimize their own share of energy consumption and their related

costs This will also lead to putting some effort into reducing their

individual energy consumption without just shifting consumption

from one individual consumer to the other

It has been shown that an extended holistic process and system

understanding is beneficial in order to increase energy and

resource efficiency measures in manufacturing sites This is due to

the fact that many sub-systems are interlinked and have indirect or

direct coupled energy consumption, which are not obvious at first

sight and can cause a problem shift if efficiency measures are only applied from a narrow point of view [20] Several researchers have already stated the basic need for reliable energy consumption data for a successful development towards more energy efficient processes and factories e.g by use of software tools (energy aware process chain simulation, LCI of manufacturing process chains, evaluation of machine tool configuration) [21-24] Some even put a special focus on the energy aware upper level planning and control

of production, which can be defined as an interface between all three levels of a factory [25-26] Some researchers have even tried

to break down the assessed energy of the whole factory in order to allocate it to one product manufactured at the site, stating that a more efficient monitoring and control of energy used in infrastructure and technical services can help to optimise the plant level activities [27]

When planning and ultimately deploying an electricity metering and monitoring concept in a factory, it quickly becomes obvious that the electrical distribution network structure inside a factory highly varies from a simple organisational structure This makes setting-up of a consistent metering network with proper upper level monitoring quite challenging Especially, when the department structures are being monitored with the purpose of energy accounting based on organizational structures, the complexity of the deployed metering strategy increases dramatically

3.3 Unit process level

Unit process level of electricity metering and monitoring is considered as the lowest hierarchical type of metering point selection Meters are directly attached to single machines or machine components (e.g auxiliary pumps, ventilation systems) and peripheral units such as decentralized coolant treatment or decentralized compressed air production systems On this lowest level the most detail of electrical energy consumption can be obtained [17] Direct monitoring of single machines may be required for energy optimized production planning around highly energy intensive processes or to conduct a deeper understanding of the energy flow distribution onto sub-components of production machines or to better understand the energetic coupling of in-line

factors concerning electricity and related potential benefits through electricity metering and monitoring on unit process level

Unit process level:

power demand, power factor limitation, THD feedback

Potential benefits enabled through electricity metering

Supplementing unit process values to machine LCI databases; energy forecasting in production design, process planning and control; energy labelling of machine tools and products; specific quantification of single efficiency measures; evaluation of technical improvements; condition monitoring as a prophylactic measure in energy and resource sufficiency

Table 4: Cost factors and potential benefits through electricity metering and monitoring on unit process level

Other publications utilized electricity metering and monitoring on unit process level by using energy and time studies to assess the specific environmental and economic impact of particular production processes which can then be used to build Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) databases [31-32]

Keynotes4

In addition to impact assessment and efficiency improvements as

planning tools, electricity metering and monitoring can also be used

for condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines and

processes This enables to prevent energy and resource losses

ahead of time such as tool changes, planning of maintenance

cycles as well as early detection of tool wear The international

standard such as ISO 13374-1, are helping users to implement

such established measures [33] Others have also demonstrated

additional benefit by combining electricity metering and monitoring

data with machine control data (e.g from programmable logic

controllers) to gain beneficial additional transparency into process

specific environmental impact assessment [34-35]

4 GUIDELINE FOR ELECTRICTY METERING AND

MONITORING IN MANUFACTURING

Rohdin and Thollander have listed in detail the barriers that

especially non-energy intensive manufacturing companies are

confronted with, when being faced by a decision to actually go for

energy efficiency assessments and measures [36] The study

indicated that responsible staff often fears the interruption of

production processes, the lack of insufficient sub-metering in the

company structure to quantify and assess implemented efficiency

measures and some even face a lack of technical skill to put

metering and monitoring into action

Occupational Health and Safety is also critical in use and selection

of measurement instruments The IEC 61010-1 declares the

general safety requirements for electrical test and measurement

equipment for electrical industrial process control and laboratory

equipment [37] For easier recognition of suitable devices, the

standard defines four categories (CAT I, II, III and IV) indicating the

specified area of usage for the specific instrument (ranging from

measurement in circuits not directly connected to the network up to

measurement on overvoltage protection devices)

To ensure a true comparability of measurement instruments

brought into the market in the European Union, the European

Parliament has issued the directive 2004/22/EC, also known as the

MID [38] The MID and related European and international

standards like the IEC 60359 ensure a proper indication of

performance criteria, basic functional requirements, which are a

common way to indicate measurement ranges and limitations of

uncertainties of measurement as well as indication of calibration

results [39] Various metering instruments and monitoring solutions

are available on the market, which are able to fulfil the requested

task of the user Therefore, the challenge of the user is to define the

task Although, researchers like Schleich have already identified

that a lack of information about energy consumption patterns has

been found to be a barrier for energy efficiency, which can be

overcome by installing metering devices and implementing energy

management systems [40]; the biggest difficulty is in fact to define

and execute the corresponding metering strategy Designing a

metering strategy incorporates the definition of a metering task, the

goal which also describes the characteristics of the resulting

measurement in terms of accuracy and resolution A metering

strategy also implies an estimation of the expected value to be

metered in order to dimension the metering equipment accordingly

An over or under dimensioned metering system can result in a low

accuracy and high variance of the metered value or even an

overload situations with fatal errors Only a few publications are

seen in the community of manufacturing engineering that actually

address how electricity metering of single devices is actually

performed and which measurement instruments are recommended

to be used [41]

In the following sections of the paper a guideline for electrical energy metering and monitoring will be presented Technical and economical challenges will be addressed and specific ranges of technical specifications suitable for the three defined levels of application will be suggested The decision of selecting suitable measurement instruments always depends on the minimum requirements due to the defined task and the economic aspect as a limiting factor for the upper range of requirements

Technical challenges: Electricity metering instruments are

designed to cover a lot of measurement purposes Some have been developed for highly accurate and real time monitoring like oscilloscopes and others have been designed to suit a variety of tasks such as multi-meters for network quality analysis Each one of the instruments has different technical specifications that the user has to be aware of before making the purchasing decision Against each task required, individual set of technical specifications need to

be clarified by formulating a measurement strategy while giving certain ranges of specifications of the informational degree

Economical challenges: Selecting the most cost-effective

metering solution requires a clear vision of the required outcome More available options and features are always more expensive and are a quick step towards over-dimensioning The economical challenges of each level provide some considerations that inevitably come with designing a measurement strategy and implementing electricity metering and monitoring

Factory Level:

Selecting the right accuracy class is essential to be able to control electricity billing

Technical challenges: Factory level metering is done on or near

the interface between the electricity supplier and the customer The installed meters from the supplier in industry applications are usually electronic meters that do not simply meter the energy consumption in kilowatt-hours but additionally use certain register intervals in which the specific amount of energy is accumulated For instance, the register interval in Germany is fixed to 15 minutes, which means the resulting accumulated 15 minute energy is used to charge peak loads in individual electricity supply contracts for industry consumers The register values from the electronic meters are collected by the supplier by using remote instrument reading The MID as well as the IEC 62053 enable the customer to select appropriate metering instruments to meter with a higher accuracy and in higher temporal resolution As a result, breaking down the 15 minute standard register interval from the supplier to 30 second intervals can be used to gain transparency into how 15 minute peak charges occur and be a first step towards evaluation of whether load management could be used to lower the charges

Economical challenges: The investment for metering equipment

on this level is considered low since only a few meters (at least one

at each medium voltage transformer inlet) are needed The resulting data volume is considered negligible Despite this, the selection of the metering instrument is not a simple task Scientific discussions from the early nineties up until now have stated that higher levels of sophistication in electricity metering will be essential

to prepare the suppliers and customers for the inevitable utilization

of the smart grid [42-43] It should be kept in mind that the consumed amount of kilowatt-hours is not the only number that is of interest for the electricity suppliers There are other parameters such as current, voltage, apparent power and their specific behaviour in time that demands costly improvements and maintenance actions in the distribution networks Therefore, it might

be in the interest of the customer to know in advance about these parameters in order to have transparency into energy billing The selection of a metering device with the capability to meter active power, apparent power, power factor and the total harmonic

distortion as a quality parameter with a temporal resolution of 30

seconds up to 15 minutes with accuracies complying with the

standards described earlier (as well as with the local requirements

of the state legislations) is highly recommended as a quality

parameter The amount of data collected from one metering device

in standard office applications will result in a data volume ranging

from 280 megabytes to 8.2 gigabytes per year (depending on the

selected resolution)

Department level:

Metering on department level is done to gain a better transparency

of the energy flows inside the organisational and the technical

distribution network of the factory A certain degree of transparency

enables organisational and technical energy efficiency measures

The metering strategy and the related challenges in the selection of

metering equipment on department level are highly dependent on

the consumption behaviour of the single substructures This paper

draws a distinction between highly dynamic behaviour, low dynamic

Highly dynamic energy consumption behaviour can be found in

assembly or production departments or single lines with several

inline processes and machines that perform highly variable

processes As a result, energy demand from the grid is highly

variable as well Low dynamic consumption behaviour can be found

in technical building services and are represented by processes like

compressed air production, technical air ventilation or facility

heating Near static consumption behaviour can be found in office

complexes or in server rooms These substructures show distinct

periodic cycles over days or weeks while being not very prone to

sudden changes or peak demands

Technical challenge: Table 5 presents recommendations for

metering specifications for different metering strategies on

department level related to the dynamic consumption behaviour of

the regarded department The recommended temporal resolution of

the output data of the electronic metering devices are linked with

the dynamic behaviour A high dynamic behaviour needs high

resolutions of the metering output data in order to achieve certain

transparency and a satisfactory understanding of the consumption

behaviour of the department

Table 5: Department level metering specifications

Economical challenge: The department level metering has

probably the highest variety of possible economic impacts that tend

to be very case specific However, general propositions can still be

made to address the challenges Metering on department level is

often used to do energy accounting for a fixed sub structure, which

can be an organisational structure (department), a production line

for a specific product or a storage area Each one of these clusters

of defined sub consumers is drawing electricity from the internal

distribution network Since organisational structures and technical

structures are mostly not same due to the building design, the

consumer clusters might not be situated in the same branch of the

distribution network, which will result in a high number of

sub-meters These meters can also be used for determining the unit

process energy consumption pattern on individual processes

Complex structures of metering systems on this level requires a

well structured communication and data computation system to

handle the monitoring of the complex metering output data Single

meters with a data output resolution of 1 second, as recommended

for high dynamic metering tasks, would result in a yearly data volume of 256 gigabyte (raw data) if three parameters (active power, apparent power and power factor) are logged continuously Each sub meter added to the metering and monitoring structure adds its part of the data volume share that needs to be handled by the data processing system The measurement instruments itself will also play a considerable role in the economical challenge Measurement instruments with high accuracy classes and capabilities to meter THD and PF characteristics are usually too expensive to be distributed on department level metering applications However, more and more, ultra low cost power quality meters and energy management systems with class A IEC 61000-4-30 compliance are emerging which will make electricity measurement possible on this level in the near future [44] In fact, electricity metering and monitoring on department level can actually pay off very quickly as shown in a case study by Stephenson and Paun The authors demonstrated how a small manufacturer was able to shift and reschedule some of his manufacturing machines to avoid peak charges, and power factor charges by soft starting controls for machine start-ups on Mondays and deferring electrical consumption on activities like energy intensive drying processes or chilled water production by less than two hours without affecting production requirements [45]

Unit process level:

On unit process level the single process, machine, or component is being metered and monitored As mentioned above, it might be needed to do unit process metering in applications considered as department level metering and monitoring, but the actual unit process metering is mostly considered to be research related or only short term metering rather than continuous

In the scientific community unit process metering and monitoring are often found throughout many case studies Solding et al have used metering data of unit processes to accumulate the fundamental data basis for energy aware production simulation in various degrees of detail [46] Considering consumption profiles from products Elias et al have shown the importance of electricity metering in order to evaluate the user behaviour’s influence on the product’s electric energy consumption [47] Whereas Dietmair et al have used electricity metering and monitoring on unit process level

to analyse and evaluate machine tool design strategies to foster energy efficiency [48] Li et al developed an empirical approach to model and predict unit process energy consumption for material removal processes [49]

Unit process

THD Table 6: Unit process level metering specifications

In all these electricity metering and monitoring applications, the accuracy is not of primary importance since no monetary value is calculated from the metered values Moreover it is the qualitative importance of the metered values directly related to the high temporal resolution which enables an understanding into the process

Technical challenge: As in department level, the unit process

metering specifications are closely related to the dynamics of the unit process’ electrical energy consumption behaviour Highly dynamic behaviour is likely to be seen in high speed machining processes or robotic applications, whereas low dynamic processes

Keynotes6

the recommended temporal resolution can go down to 10

milliseconds for highly dynamic processes On unit process level,

the source of the harmonic distortion and low power factor can also

be found and compensated by making use of continuous unit

process metering as an input for closed loop controls

Economical challenge: The investment for metering equipment on

this level is estimated to be high, because only the highly

sophisticated metering systems are able to provide such high

temporal resolutions and are able to handle the high data output

volume from the single metering equipment This high data volume

enables real time monitoring, but at the same time makes logging

applications very data intensive Especially on unit process level,

the harmonic distortion charge of the suppliers can be addressed,

as the countermeasures can be applied directly at the source Total

harmonic distortion (THD) is an electrical noise feedback caused by

electrical inverters and phase controlled modulators THD does not

only lower the quality of the distribution network, but also severely

impacts local machines and sensitive devices

The following section of this paper addresses difficulties in selecting

the right measurement equipment for a given task

5 REVIEW OF AVAILABLE ENERGY METERING DEVICES

In the previous chapter it has been shown that within each

electricity measurement task, whether to enable energy efficiency

measures or to do energy accounting within organisational

structures, it is always a challenge to formulate the right

measurement strategy and to select the right measurement

instruments for the task of metering This section gives a brief

overview of some typically metering devices found in the market as

well as explaining some basic distinguishing features that must be

a selection of most commonly used electricity metering instruments

from industrial and research applications The aim is neither to

provide a complete list nor to rate the instruments in any way The

selection is just a very limited selection of some important features

that distinguish the single instruments

The instrument features range from installation, which describe

whether the device can be mounted in a fixed location or if it can be

used in mobile applications Mobile applications are usually found in

short time measurement for quick energy assessments on factory

or unit process level or in special research applications Fixed types

of devices can be found in the long time measurement applications available on all levels Such devices can be built-in directly into control or distribution cabinets

As the evolution of electricity metering devices has allowed user to obtain not only single measurands meters (Ferraris disc meter) but also multi measurands meters, a broad selection of possible measurands becomes available and allows more integrated applications This enables for example single devices at factory level to provide users the information about active energy consumption for energy controlling as well as reactive energy and total harmonic distortion values for quality monitoring at the same time The amounts of measurands that can be read from the single devices are defined by the complexity of the electronic meters and often manifest itself in the purchasing price

resolutions of the metering points needed to perform metering

match these required resolutions in order to be well dimensioned for the metering task The degree of output resolution is directly proportional the purchasing price of the instruments Data loggers with resolutions of higher than a metering point per second can exceed 5000 EUR A high output data resolution is not always a sign of quality It is rather an indication of the possible types of information that can be gained from the metering data through analysis As discussed earlier, a high degree of metering data resolution can quickly result into high additional costs for handling

of the large amounts of resulting data if centralized monitoring is used Selecting the right degree of detail is an essential part of the right dimensioning of a metering strategy

In large metering networks, commonly found in department level metering and monitoring, the communications interface plays a very important role as well Metering and monitoring applications have to

be able to use the same communication interface Real-time monitoring and control applications often use industrial bus interfaces like Profibus or in near real-time applications interfaces like Ethernet Simple applications such as monitoring for energy accounting do not rely on real-time data and are usually working with bus systems based on RS485 or even impulse signal recognition The communication interface matching is very important when designing cost-effective metering strategies Multi interface applications can easily lead to complex and costly software and hardware conflicts If a holistic department level Measurement instrument:

Brand, series/type

resolution*

Communication interface*

*the listed features are retrieved from the datasheets of the devices and are due to change in future instrument revisions

Table 7: Selection of often found electricity measurement instruments with a selection of important distinguishing features

metering strategy is to be deployed, a high amount of time has to

be invested for investigating the possible existing communications

infrastructure and resulting requirements for the new data

communication system

6 REVIEW OF SELECTED ELECTRICITY METERING AND

MONITORING SYSTEMS FOR RESEARCH PURPOSES

In this section, a special emphasis will be given to electricity

metering and monitoring systems for research related purposes As

stated before, research applications most often utilize mobile

systems in order to redeploy them easier The last five instruments

individual advantages and weaknesses

The two devices from Fluke and Chauvin Arnoux are highly

sophisticated industrial multi-measurands instruments that are

capable to log measurement values in high temporal resolution of

up to 0.5 and 0.1 seconds respectively Plug and play features

allow users to perform highly mobile measurement strategies as

found in quick energy assessments or simple before-and-after

measurements to evaluate energy efficiency measures

Other instruments like from Voltech and Load Controls are very

likely to be used in detail energy system analyses Very high

metering data resolutions in the range of hundredth of a second

allow analysing transients, inrush currents and other short term

electrical events The specific characteristic of these two devices is

that they need additional external digital analogue converters with

high sampling rates for logging purposes of the analogue data

output interface, which is additionally affecting the accuracy of the

logged metering values

The last item on the list from National Instruments is a typical

laboratory solution for research tasks, with an open programming

platform to create individual metering algorithms The individual

algorithms and the specifications of the individual input modules

define the amount of calculated measurands and their accuracy

Since such an open platform is not sufficient for energy accounting

or related purposes on factory or department level, this mobile

device is solely meant for research applications with a high degree

of individuality and freedom

7 INDUSTRY CASE: ONGOING CHALLENGES OF

DEPLOYING A METERING AND MONITORING STRATEGY

IN AN AUSTRALIAN MANUFACTURER

The presented case is derived from the analysis of a bio-medical

products manufacturing company in Australia The increasing

energy bill due to both business growth and rising energy cost has

been considered as one of the main issues in this company This

not only impacts the environmental performance of this company

but also affects its business strategy Reducing energy

consumption would benefit the company both economically and

ecologically The main aim was to identify the areas of improvement

as well as implementing energy accounting for individual functional

units, processes and ultimately for the individual products Thus, the

company has decided to implement an energy management

system The first step taken is to establish a metering and

monitoring system in order to achieve transparency into its energy

consumption

The company initially aims to monitor the energy consumption

behaviour from top factory level down to sub-department levels

Multiple energy meters were thus allocated throughout the

distribution network The factory plant is powered by an 11 kV

electrical connection from the energy supplier The voltage is

decreased to 400 V three-phases by 3 transformers, which powers

3 main switch boards and then splits into different distribution boards The energy meters attached at the three main transformers

is to be able to perform parallel metering on the factory, which aims

to check the accuracy of the electricity bill from the supplier The metering devices at the distribution boards and circuit breakers were then assigned to individual department or sub-departments A Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system (SCADA) here allows the real time management of energy consumption The system also allows the user to configure analysis and reports to show the previous and current energy consumptions By performing the analysis of the demand for each department or area, management can determine the Key Performance Indicator (KPI) and apply procedures to minimise demand, which leads to energy savings and lower energy bill The output from the power meter devices were collected with the SCADA server via RS485 communication, which requires gateways to access them to the factory Ethernet communication network However, the deployed energy metering and monitoring system failed to provide reliable information of energy consumption of the plant The aggregation of energy consumption measured at three main transformers did not agree with the electricity bill The gap between measured value and billed amount far exceeded the errors due to the measurement Assuming that the energy supplier measured the real amount of energy consumption and billed correctly, the failure to obtain similar total energy consumption reading internally may possibly due to the selection of power meters As the energy supplier charges not only the total work load but also peak power, low power factor and THD, the current meters did not cope with the range of all the energy

consumption profile of the factory over a year per period

Figure 3: Break-down of energy consumption profile over a year The reading of the power meters at the distribution boards and circuit breakers experienced inconsistency throughout the period For example, the recorded data for one department gave zero energy consumption for the whole year, where the plant actually runs 24/7 Another example is that some unusual spike was

even exceeded the total energy consumption of the main transformers The possible reason for this failure is mainly due to the connection problem within the communication system between power meters and SCADA server

Furthermore, the layout of distribution network did not agree with

implement energy accounting for each organizational department, the energy monitoring system requires new metering points in the distribution network As a result a new energy monitoring system

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

MainTransformersPlant RoomAdministrationBottle Filling

has been implemented, which resulted in changing some of the

existing devices and installing new ones in order to extend the

monitoring and measuring to individual processes A considerable

cost is thus caused to improve the energy metering and monitoring

system

Figure 4: Factory organisational structure and the existing metering

system

After these changes, company’s external reading and energy bill

have started to agree with the internal measurements Currently the

company, in collaboration with the authors, has been developing a

new energy oriented factory planning system in order to link the

material flow to the energy flow within the factory Currently the

company’s energy bill exceeds $1M a year Despite the initial

investment with the introduction of the new system, company is

expected to reduce its energy bill by about 30% as well as reducing

its carbon foot-print substantially

8 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK

Today’s manufacturing companies are facing a more stringent cost

pressure than ever before due to rising energy and resource costs

and the associated environmental impact Manufacturing

companies have come to realisation the importance of electrical

energy metering and monitoring as a foundation to work out energy

efficiency improvement potentials This key note paper presented a

short review of the evolution and the latest developments in

electricity metering monitoring systems A special emphasis is given

the challenges of the designing of metering strategies in order to

properly dimension metering instruments for a given task In

addition, the paper addressed the critical aspects of data

communication and the compatibility of interfaces in relation to

different application areas An exemplary list of metering devices

was presented to demonstrate how the features of the different

measurement instruments can be matched for certain measurement

tasks on different application levels In order to emphasise the

importance of a well designed metering strategy and selection of

the right metering and monitoring equipments, a case study from a

manufacturing company was presented

9 REFERENCES

Efficiency in Manufacturing – Perspectives from Australia and

Europe, in: CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle

Engineering, pp 23-28

Meter, in: Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers,

Vol 77, No 468, pp 851-859

IEEE today’s engineer, online available on:

http://www.todaysengineer.org/2010/May/history.asp, last

[4] Shtargot, J (2008): Advanced Power-Line Monitoring Requires a High-Performance Simultaneous-Sampling ADC,

in MAXIM Application Note 4281

[5] Schwendtner, M.F (1996): Digital measurement system for electricity meters, in Metering and Tariffs for Energy Supply Conference Publication, Institution of Electrical Engineers,

No 426, pp 190-193

[6] Schwendtner, M.F (1996): Technological developments in electricity metering and associated fields, in Metering and Tariffs for Energy Supply Conference Publication, Institution

of Electrical Engineers, No 426, pp 240-242

[7] International Electrotechnical Commission (2003): IEC 62053:2003 - Electricity metering equipment (a.c.)

C12.20-2010 - Electricity Meters - 0.2 and 0.5 Accuracy Classes [9] Verein Deutscher Elektrotechniker (1976): VDE 0410 - Regeln für elektrische Meßgeräte

[10] International Electrotechnical Commission (1998): IEC 60051:1998 - Direct acting indicating analogue electrical measuring instruments and their accessories

[11] Irwin, L.A (2010): A High Accuracy Standard for Electricity Meters, in Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition, New Orleans

[12] Lerch, R (2007): Elektrische Messtechnik, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

[13] International Electrotechnical Commission (1996): IEC 1:1996 - Instrument transformers - Part 1: Current transformers

60044-[14] Start, D.J (1995): A review of the new CENELEC standard

EN 50160, in: Issues in Power Quality, IEE Colloquium [15] European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (2007): EN 50160:2007 - Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution networks

[16] Masetti, C (2010): Revision of European Standard EN 50160

on power quality: Reasons and solutions, in: 14th International Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power [17] Herrmann, C.; Bogdanski, G.; Zein, A (2010): Industrial Smart Metering – Application of Information Technology Systems to Improve Energy Efficiency in Manufacturing, in: 43rd CIRP International Conference on Manufacturing Systems, Wien, pp n.a

[18] Hesselbach, J.; Herrmann, C.; Detzer, R.; Martin, L.; Thiede, S.; Lüdemann, B (2008): Energy Efficiency through optimized coordination of production and technical building services, in: 15th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, Sydney, pp 624-629

[19] Jahn, M.; Jentsch, M.; Prause, C.R.; Pramudianto, F.; Akkad, A.; Reiners, R (2010): The Energy Aware Smart Home, in: 5th International Conference on Future Information Technology

Al-[20] Herrmann, C.; Thiede, S.; Zein, A.; Heinemann, T (2010): Holisitc Approaches for Increasing Energy and Resource Efficiency in Manufacturing, in: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Automotive Materials and Manufacturing, Pune

[21] Herrmann, C.; Thiede, S (2010): Simulation-based Energy Flow Evaluation for Sustainable Manufacturing Sytems, in: CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, pp 99-104

Sub-System 1

Periphery System n

…

Organizational

Structure

Distribution Network

[22] Huang, H.; Liu, Z.; Zhang, H.-C.; Sutherland, J.W (2010): A

Proposed Method to Study the Life-cycle Energy

Consumption of the Automotive Industry, in: CIRP

International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, pp

127-130

[23] Klocke, F.; Lung, D.; Schlosser, R.; Nau, B (2009): Energy

and Resource Efficient Production – a Core Competence for

Manufacturers, in: 16th CIRP International Conference on Life

Cycle Engineering, pp 209-214

[24] Herrmann, C.; Thiede, S (2009): Towards Energy and

Resource Efficient Process Chains, in: 16th CIRP

International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, pp

303-309

[25] Chiotellis, S.; Seliger, G.; Weinert, N (2009): Energy-aware

Production Planning and Control, in: 16th CIRP International

Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, pp 310-315

[26] Müller, E.; Löffler, T (2009): Improving Energy Efficiency in

CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, pp

465-471

[27] Rahimifard, S.; Seow, Y.; Childs, T (2010): Minimising

Embodied Product Energy to support energy efficient

manufacturing, in: CIRP Annals – Manufacturing Technology,

pp 25-28

[28] Herrmann, C.; Thiede, S Heinemann, T (2010): A Holistic

Framework for Increasing Energy and Resource Efficiency in

Manufacturing, in: 8th Global Conference on Sustainable

Manufacturing

[29] Klocke, F.; Schlosser, R.; Lung, D (2010): Energy and

Resource Consumption of Cutting Processes, in: 17th CIRP

International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, pp

111-115

[30] Dietmair, A.; Verl, A (2010): Energy Consumption

Assessment and Optimisation in the Design and Use Phase

of a Machine Tool, in: 17th CIRP International Conference on

Life Cycle Engineering, pp 116-121

[31] Devoldere, T.; Dewulf, W.; Deprez, W.; Duflou, J.R (2008):

Energy Related Life Cycle Impact and Cost Reduction

Opportunities in Machine Design: The Laser Cutting Case, in:

15th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle

Engineering

[32] Devoldere, T.; Dewulf, W.; Deprez, W.; Willems, B.;Duflou,

J.R (2007): Improvement Potential for Energy Consumption

in Discrete Part Production Machines, in: 14th CIRP

International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, pp

311-316

[33] International Standardization Organisation (2003): ISO

13374-1:2003 – Condition monitoring and diagnostics of

machines – Data processing, communication and

presentation, Part 1: General guidelines

[34] Bottene, A.C.; Franca, T.V.; Ometto, A.R.; Torrisi, N.M.; Filho,

A.G (2009): Methodology to integrate the electrical energy

consumption real-time monitoring and related environmental

impacts assessment, in: 16th CIRP International Conference

on Life Cycle Engineering, pp 373-376

[35] Vijayaraghavan, A.; Dorenfeld, D (2010): Automated energy

monitoring of machine tools, in: CIRP Annals – Manufacturing

Technology, pp 21-24

[36] Rohdin, P.; Thollander, P (2006): Barriers to and driving

forces for energy efficiency in the non-energy intensive

manufacturing industry in Sweden, in: Energy, vol 31, issue

12, pp 1836-1844

[37] International Electrotechnical Commission (2009): IEC 1:2009 - Safety requirements for electrical equipment for measurement, control, and laboratory use - Part 1: General requirements

61010-[38] European Parliament and (2004): 2044/22/EC directive on measuring instruments, in: Official Journal of the European Union, L 135

[39] International Electrotechnical Commission (2001): IEC 60359:2001 – Electrical and electronic measurement equipment – Expression of performance

[40] Schleich, J (2009): Barriers to energy efficiency: A comparison across the German commercial and services sector, in: Ecological Economics, Vol 68, pp 2150-2159 [41] Herrmann, C.; Zein, A.; Winter, M.; Thiede, S (2010): Procedures and Tools for Metering Energy Consumption of Machine Tools, in: 3rd International Scientific Conference with Expert Participation – MANUFACTURING

[42] Sioshansi, F.P (1991): Electronic metering and two-way communications – The electric power industry, in Utilties Policy, Vol 1, No 4, pp 294-307

[43] Mak, S.T (2010): Sensor Data Output Requirements for Smart Grid Applications, in Power and Energy Society General Meeting, IEEE, ISSN 1944-9925, pp 1-3

[44] McEachern, A.; Eberhard, A (2009): A new, ultra low cost

International Conference on Electricity Distribution, ISBN: 978-1-84919126-5, pp 1-4

[45] Stephenson, P.; Paun, M (2000): Consumer Advantages from Half-Hourly Metering and Load Profiles in the UK Competitive Electricity Market, in: International Conference on Electric Utility Deregulation and Restructuring and Power Technologies, pp 35-40

[46] Solding, P.; Petku, D.; Mardan, N (2009): Using simulation for more sustainable production systems, in: International Journal of Sustainable Engineering, Vol 2, No 2, pp 111-

122

[47] Elias, E.W.; Dekoninck, E.A.; Cully, S.J (2009): Quantifying the Energy Impacts of Use, in: 16th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, pp 444-451

[48] Dietmair, A.; Zulaika, J; Sultika, M; Bustillo, A.; Verl, A (2010): Lifecycle Impact Reduction and Energy Savings through Leight Weight Eco-Design of Machine Tools, in: 17th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, pp 105-110

[49] Li, W.; Kara, S (2011): An Empirical Model for Predicting Energy Consumption of Manufacturing Processes: A Case of Turning Process, in: Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B, Journal of Engineering Manufacture

Keynotes10

Automotive Industry Processes

Stephan Krinke Volkswagen AG, Head of Group Research Environmental Affairs Product, Wolfsburg, Germany

Abstract

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a powerful tool which supports life cycle engineering It can be used as an environmental

management instrument within the product development For successful life cycle engineering the formal incorporation

of life cycle thinking into the company policy is a necessary pre-requisite Additional success factors which have to be

met are the transformation of LCA results into measurable targets for engineers Based on given environmental targets,

such as a certain target value for greenhouse gas emissions, LCA can be used to calculate a specific technical target

such as the weight of a component, the fuel consumption of a vehicle or the minimum amount of recycled content in a

product The transformation of pure LCA results into measurable target values, which can be understood by engineers,

will clearly show the added value which LCA can give in terms of life cycle engineering.Even for very complex products

with a huge variety of different materials and a complex value chain life cycle assessment can be performed with a

reasonable time demand, with good quality and integrated efficiently into business processes

Keywords

Design for Environment; Automotive; LCA; Life Cycle Engineering

1 INTRODUCTION

The automotive industry is since decades one of the industrial focus

areas for environmental technologies and environmental protection

But how can the environmental performance of a complex product

such as an automobile be measured? The aspects which directly or

indirectly influence the environment are manifold:

Starting with the production of raw materials and going along the

value chain the entire production affects the environment

Especially the automotive industry is one of the industry sectors

with a very complex value chain, including nearly all kind of

materials such as metals, polymers, glass and ceramics The usage

phase of the vehicle also effects the environment due to the

combustion of fuel and the herewith linked emissions such as CO2,

contributing to climate change Other tailpipe emissions such as

carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons contribute to

local air quality (e.g summer smog) The quantity of these impacts

depends on the fuel consumption and the emission standard of the

vehicle And last but not least the driving behavior of the customer,

which influences the fuel consumption, has an impact on the

environment During the end-of-life phase materials are recovered

or recycled from the end-of-life vehicle and can be used as

secondary (raw) materials in other applications

Therefore the environmental assessment of a vehicle has to cover

the entire life cycle One of the most suitable instruments to

measure the potential environmental impact of a product is life cycle

assessment [1, 2] Volkswagen started in 1991 with a research

study for the life cycle inventory (LCI) of the Golf III which was

published as first automotive LCI of a complete vehicle worldwide in

1996 [3] In the following years LCIs of different vehicles of the

Volkswagen Group were published [4, 5, 6, 7]

Today the Volkswagen Group has incorporated life cycle thinking as

a main principle of the product development The advantages of this

approach are:

 Environmental management based on figures and facts

 Identification of hot spots for product optimization along the entire value chain

 LCA is an internationally accepted method and a firm basis for

a dialogue with stakeholders

 LCA is part of company ratings which directly influences the interest rate and financial power of the company

In the following chapters the environmental strategy of the Volkswagen group and the implementation of life cycle engineering into the environmental management will be explained

2 ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY

The key element of the Volkswagen group strategy 2018 is to position the Volkswagen group as a global economic and environmental leader among automobile manufacturers We intend

to set new environmental standards in vehicles, powertrains and lightweight construction

2.1 Environmental challenges

The main environmental challenges for the automotive industry today and in future are climate protection, health and local air quality and resource protection Therefore these three items are incorporated into the environmental principles product of the Volkswagen Group This standard is the basis for the product related environmental strategy

2.2 Environmental strategy of the Volkswagen Group

The environmental strategy of the Volkswagen group has two main pillars: The environmental standard production and the environ-mental principles product The latter addresses the three main environmental challenges (climate protection, health and local air quality and resource protection) and incorporates the life cycle engineering as a main principle in product development

11

J Hesselbach and C Herrmann (eds.), Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing: Proceedings of the 18th CIRP International

Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, May 2nd - 4th, 2011,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-19692-8_2, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

Environmental Strategy Volkswagen Group

„Individual ecological mobility“

Group Management Group Environmental Strategy Committee

Production - Press shop

processes - Paint shop

- Foundry

- …

Figure 1: Environmental strategy Volkswagen Group

The Volkswagen group is committed to developing vehicles and

components in such a way that they have better environmental

properties than their predecessors over the entire life cycle Life

cycle assessments are used to analyze and document the

environmental performance of vehicles, technologies and

processes

3 SUCCESS FACTORS FOR LIFE CYCLE ENGINEERING

Whereas the first ideas of life cycle based analysis were developed

30 years ago, it still remains a challenge to implement life cycle

assessment successfully as environmental management tool into

business processes In this chapter we describe the key success

factors for such an implementation

The success factors are:

 Integration into company policy and processes

 Reasonable time demand

 Reliable, meaningful and measurable targets for product development

3.1 Integration into company policy and processes

The commitment of the top management is crucial for the success

of any environmental policy and strategy

For the Volkswagen group the environmental standards production and product are the basis for the environmental strategy But for a successful environmental management system this is only the starting point

For the Volkswagen brand we developed an environmental

implementation of environmental aspects into the product development is the environmental officer product

Group Environmental Strategy Committee

Environmental officers at the locations

Environmental officer for production

Environmental Affairs Production

Environmental Affairs Product

Environmental Affairs Strategy

Environmental management officer

of the Volkswagen brand

Material controlling LCA &

raw material analysis

Environmental Management at Volkswagen

Networking and directing worldwide activities in environmental protection

Figure 2: Environmental management at Volkswagen

Keynotes12

Environmentally compatible product development

Volkswagen brand

Vehicle

mance specifi- Product description book

Perfor-Raw material analysis

Environmental Analysis

Model update Advance

engineering Research

Environmental product descriptions

Environmental Control

Supervision of vehicle projects

Material controlling Global material legislations Material data acquisition (MISS/IMDS) Material controlling

Environment and innovation roadmaps

Environmental targets, performance specifications and standards

Development stages and tasks

Environmental commendations

Product communication

Instruments Tasks Legends

Product development over time

Screening of environmental related laws and activities of competitors

Figure 3: Environmentally compatible product development for the Volkswagen brand

along the product development which usually takes around 48

months until the start of production

Different teams act along the product development The team

environmental analysis has the task to perform LCA and strategic

raw material analysis for different components and technologies

The focus of this work is the early phase of the product

development including research

Strategic raw material analysis focuses on long term risk

assessment [8] such as

 Supply and demand today and in future

 Market power of the raw material suppliers

Life cycle inventory data and the herewith linked bill of materials is a

powerful basis for raw material risk assessment which can not be

performed without that information

The task of the LCA is to compare different technologies in the early

phase of product development The challenge of this task is that the

information required for the LCA is often not fully available in the

early phase of the product development E.g the body-in-white

concept is known from the material perspective, but the exact

weights of the different components are unknown Here LCA should

be applied in such a way that the unknown variables are calculated

as measurable target values In our example where we do not know

the exact weight of all components the sum of the component

weight can be calculated as target, which has not to be exceeded in

order to achieve an environmental goal such as a maximum

greenhouse gas emission potential

Another important aspect for the implementation of life cycle

engineering is the formal inclusion of the suppliers Volkswagen

included in its supplier conditions that on request the supplier has to

deliver life cycle inventory data for his parts and components [9]

Additionally the IMDS system (www.mdsystem.de) is a reliable data

basis for information about the material composition and the bill of

materials of a certain part

The most important aspect is that the Volkswagen brand included in

its environmental objectives “that we will develop each model in

such a way that, in its entirety, it presents better environmental

properties than its predecessor As we do so, we will always make

sure that the entire life cycle is taken into account during the development of our products.” This target is signed by the board member for the technical development for the Volkswagen brand

Figure 4: Environmental objectives of the Volkswagen brand

3.2 Reasonable time demand

LCA is a very comprehensive tool which offers a detailed insight in

the environmental profile of a product

Performing an LCA of a complex product can be divided into two

steps: The first is the data collection of the product Here the part

list of the product is required For every single component the

material composition must be quantified and the herewith linked

production process chain must be defined This step can be

improved in terms of time efficiency via the implementation of IMDS

data for the components and the linkage to other internal

IS-systems of the company Anyhow this still remains a time

consuming step and can take even today up to 30 days The final

result of step 1 is a so called transfer file, which describes for a

vehicle every single component by its bill of material and the

The second step is the transfer of this information into a LCA

model Within Volkswagen we developed an in-house solution

which automatically builds up the LCA model based on the

information of the transfer file and the so called correlation list [10]

The correlation list correlates each material and each production

process to a respective LCI data set The advantage of this

approach is not only a huge reduction in time demand but also huge

increase in consistency and quality of the LCA results

Time and Resource Demand for LCA of Cars

Situation today

predefined process data

base manual processing

electronic data

complete transfer file

other internal data sources

technical IMDS product model

close data gaps

~ 1 day

interface 1 interface 2

mapping file transfer file

Figure 5: Time and resource demand for LCA of vehicles

Therefore life cycle assessments, even for complex products with a

huge variety of different parts and materials, can be performed with

a reasonable time demand

3.3 Reliable and measurable targets for the product

development

Life cycle assessment is an environmental management tool that

delivers scientific sound results, not less but also not more A good

environmental management system is therefore characterized by

the capability to transform LCA results e.g in terms of a

greenhouse gas profile of different technologies into a technical

target which can be understood, measured and monitored by an

engineer These targets can be fuel consumption, electric power

consumption or the weight of a certain component The real

challenge of life cycle engineering is to bring together two different

worlds: The world of the LCA expert, who models the product in

terms of environmental impacts versus the world of the engineer

who develops the product and takes technical measure that

influence the environment

In order to derive reliable, meaningful and measurable targets the

following aspects should be considered

Stable and reliable results

As LCA is a model outcome every LCA result should be tested by

sensitivity analysis in order to prove whether the result, or much

more important, a derived technical recommendation, is stable

while varying certain model parameters or assumptions

Data quality

Foreground data, such as the bill of materials, information about production processes or energy consumption in the use phase, describes the characteristics of the product From our experience this foreground data is of major relevance and has a strong influence on the overall LCA results

For commodities generic data sets can be used as a first approach For the modeling of special materials, which are new on the market

or based on new technologies, a data acquisition in cooperation with the respective supplier is strongly recommended At that point

a formal requirement for data acquisition of life cycle inventory data

in the supplier contracts is very helpful

For highly innovative industries, such as the automotive industry, it

is of utmost importance to use high-quality inventory data in order to assess the environmental profile of new materials and new technologies This is a challenge because the knowledge of new technologies and new materials is of course limited But this does not mean that LCA can not be applied Also in this case the area of unknown knowledge can be transformed by LCA into a measurable target value If, for instance, the energy consumption of a new production process is still unknown, an LCA can be used to calculate the acceptable maximum energy consumption in order to achieve a certain environmental target

Anyhow there is a parallel between the automotive industry and life cycle assessment: High-tech powertrains need high-quality fuels – high-tech LCA need high-quality inventory data Therefore today and in the future the provision of high-quality inventory data will remain an important and necessary task, especially for science and consultancy

3.4 Communication strategy

It is most important that products with special environmental features or technological improvements are also communicated as such A company which invests in environmental performance and technology leadership should also use these characteristics in the communication and marketing Therefore the challenge in that area

is to translate LCA results into a communication that will be understood by the respective target groups It is notable that economical and environmental optimization oftentimes are in line, especially with regard to the fuel consumption In the case of the automobile industry we have to differentiate between private customers and fleet customers as two different kinds of target groups Whereas private customers mostly focus on fuel consumption and emission levels in terms of costs, they do not reflect what we call total cost of ownership (TCO) While TCO means that higher purchase prices can be amortized over life time

at the customer, the private customer has in many cases a limited willingness to pay for additional environmental features, even if they offer the opportunity to get the economical break-even within a time scale of 2-3 year In contrast to that, fleet customers base their decisions often on TCO calculations For an OEM this means that fleet customers have a willingness to pay for environmental technologies such as BlueMotion, if the economical break even will

be reached within a few years But also other environmental aspects might be important for fleet customers, e.g a company can improve their sustainability ranking by improving the company fleet cars

For the Volkswagen brand we developed the so-called environmental commendations (www.environmental-commendation.com) Environmental commendations for new vehicle models and technologies highlight ecological progress compared with predecessor models and previous technologies We use environmental commendations to inform our customers, our shareholders and other stakeholders how we are making our

Keynotes14

products and production processes more environmentally

compatible and what we have achieved in this respect The

underlying LCA not only covers the time when the vehicle is on the

road but its entire life cycle from production through to use and

disposal This reflects the fact that we assume responsibility for the

entire supply chain, including the production of raw materials and

parts for our vehicles We engage in dialogue with our suppliers to

identify environmental measures that can be taken The information

of environmental commendations is based on an LCA, which has

been verified and certified by the technical inspection organization

TÜV NORD The TÜV certificate confirms that the LCA is based on

reliable data and that the methods used to compile it comply with

the requirements of the ISO standards 14040 and 14044

4 INTELLIGENT LIGHTWEIGHT DESIGN OVER LIFE CYCLE

In this chapter we show how an LCA can be applied as

environmental management tool within the product development

Lightweight design measures are chosen for this example

Modern lightweight design is one of the key technologies for an

efficient future mobility, because it contributes to reduce the fuel

consumption and the herewith linked CO2-emissions Based on the

Volkswagen’s environmental standard for products this means that

any lightweight design measure should also have an environmental

benefit over the entire life cycle Approximately one third of the fuel

consumption in the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) depends

on the mass of the vehicle Lightweight materials such as aluminum

or magnesium are energy intensive in the production as shown in

Figure 6: Greenhouse gas emission for the production of different

materials

production of different metals The reasons for this range are

manifold: The amount of recycled material, the CO2-intensity of the

used energy mix, different kinds of protecting agents and their

impact on climate change are only a few aspects which influence

the greenhouse gas balance of such a material It is also important

to note that a comparison of materials can not be done based on

cycle and by assessing products which fulfill the same functions

E.g a body-in-white with the same crash performance will have

different weights depending on the material-mix applied and the

design of parts

For lightweight concepts the herewith linked CO2-emissions in the

production phase are often, but not always, higher than those ones

for conventional construction These additional CO2-emissions

which occur in the production phase should be compensated as fast

as possible during the use phase due to lower fuel consumption of

the lightweight design Only when we achieve the ecological

break-even, we speak of an “intelligent“ lightweight design as shown in

Volkswagen has different strategies to reduce the weight of a

vehicle Besides different material concepts the integration of

different functionalities contributes to reduce the number of parts

For the body-in-white construction, which accounts for up to 35% of

the overall vehicle weight in the series production of passenger

vehicles steel- and aluminum lightweight are established technologies

Figure 7: Lightweight design and environmental break-even The question whether a specific lightweight concept has a better greenhouse gas balance than a competing concept, can be answered only by assessing the entire vehicle An important question is whether a lightweight measure will lead to a smaller engine or not Of course any lightweight measure reduces the fuel consumption But this reduction is low (0,15 l/100km*100kg for gasoline engines) compared with a fuel reduction of 0,35 l/100km * 100kg which can be achieved by additional measure of the engine What is clear from the above examples is, that it is not possible to make general claims along the lines that „material A is always better or always worse than material B“ Whether a lightweight design measure reduces life cycle greenhouse gas emissions or not will primarily depend on the following factors: the extent of the weight savings by material and material-adopted design, whether powertrain modifications can be implemented and the quality of secondary (recycled) materials derived from the end-of-life vehicle

In practice, one and the same lightweight design measure might allow powertrain modifications to be made on vehicle A but might not, by itself, be sufficient to warrant such modifications on vehicle

B Saying this, it is often the case in practice that components or assemblies are optimized and assessed in isolation from each other, so that the significance of each measure in the causality chain that leads ultimately to powertrain modifications cannot always be clearly determined Therefore lightweight measures should always be assessed from the perspective of the entire vehicle and not from the part perspective

lightweight materials extend even further The table shows the main actors – and potential actions – at the different life cycle stages For example the material manufacturing stage offers the opportunity to significantly reduce specific CO2-emissions per kg of material produced by reducing specific energy consumption and/or through the use of renewable, low-carbon energy sources The use of secondary (recycled) materials can likewise help to reduce environmental impacts – for example some cast alloys already use

up to 90 % recycled content On the process side, too, measures such as use of climate-friendly shielding gases as a replacement for SF6, or the reduction of offcuts and scrap, all have a part to play In the vehicle use phase meanwhile, fuel-efficient vehicle design measures by the OEM must be complemented and maximized through the optimal use of this potential by customers e.g by eco-driving trainings Finally, at the recycling stage, reprocessing of lightweight materials into high-quality secondary materials will

influence the range of potential applications of such materials and

thus the associated positive environmental impacts

Figure 8: Environmentally friendly lightweight design, aspects and

measures

Seen from this overall perspective therefore, it is clear that

environmentally friendly lightweight product development offers a

wide range of different measures In addition to the engineers in the

automotive industry, the other stakeholders in the value chain

(materials manufacturers, suppliers, recycling companies) likewise

have their part to play in further improving their products and

enhancing the life cycle environmental impact of vehicle concepts of

the future

5 CONCLUSIONS

As demonstrated above, life cycle assessment is a powerful tool

which can be used as an environmental management instrument

within the product development

For successful life cycle engineering the formal incorporation of life

cycle thinking into the company policy is a necessary pre-requisite

Additional success factors which have to be met are the

transformation of LCA results into measurable targets for engineers

Based on given environmental targets, such as a certain target

value for greenhouse gas emissions, LCA can be used to calculate

a specific technical target such as the weight of a component, the

fuel consumption of a vehicle or the minimum amount of recycled

content in a product The transformation of pure LCA results into

measurable target values, which can be understood by engineers,

will clearly show the added value which LCA can give in terms of

life cycle engineering

Even for very complex products with a huge variety of different

materials and a complex value chain life cycle assessment can be

performed with a reasonable time demand, with good quality and

integrated efficiently into business processes

6 REFERENCES

[1] International Organization for Standardization (2006): ISO

14040: Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment

– Principles and Framework, International Organization for

Standardization, Geneva

[2] International Organization for Standardization (2006): ISO

14044: Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment

– requirements and guidelines, International Organization for

Standardization, Geneva

Golf In: VDI Bericht 1307 Ganzheitliche Betrachtungen im

Automobilbau Wolfsburg

[4] Schweimer, G.W (1998): Life cycle inventory of 3-L Lupo Volkswagen AG, Wolfsburg

Seat Ibiza Volkswagen AG, Wolfsburg

[6] Schweimer, G.W.; Levin, M (2000): Life cycle inventory of Golf A4 Volkswagen AG, Wolfsburg

[7] Schweimer, G.W.; Roßberg, A (2001): Sachbilanz Seat Leon Volkswagen AG, Wolfsburg

(2009): Assessing the long-term supply risks for mineral raw materials - a combined evaluation of past and future trends In: Resources Policy 34, 161–175

[10] Koffler, C.; Krinke, S.; Schebek, L.; Buchgeister, J (2007): Volkswagen slimLCI – a procedure for streamlined inventory modelling within Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of vehicles In: International Journal of Vehicle Design (Special Issue on Sustainable Mobility, Vehicle Design and Development), Olney: Inderscience Publishers

Keynotes16

David Dornfeld Laboratory for Manufacturing and Sustainability (LMAS), University of California, Berkeley, California

Abstract

Manufacturing offers many opportunities for reducing environmental impact, utilizing resources more efficiently and,

overall, greening the technology of production These opportunities are most often related to process, machine or

system improvements that impact only the operation of the process, machine or system But, there is more potential in

manufacturing enhancements to have a larger impact on the life cycle impact of the product the manufactured item is

used in This is referred to as “leveraging” and several examples of this are given, along with definitions of the

fundamental terms The potential for leveraging in manufacturing to have an impact on sustainable manufacturing and

some future requirements are described

Keywords:

Process; Machine; System Improvement; Life Cycle Impact; Make versus Use

1 INTRODUCTION

Manufacturing offers many opportunities for reducing environmental

impact, utilizing resources more efficiently and, overall, greening the

technology of production These opportunities are most often

related to process, machine or system improvements that impact

only the operation of the process, machine or system But, there is

more potential in manufacturing enhancements to have a larger

impact on the life cycle impact of the product the manufactured item

is used in This is referred to as “leveraging” and identifies

manufacturing-based efficiencies in the product that are due to

improved manufacturing capability but which, in the long run, have

their biggest effects on the lifetime consumption of energy or other

resources or environmental impacts

First, what is meant by the term “leveraging”? We understand a

lever to be a device to increase mechanical advantage, as a bar

used with a fulcrum to pry a heavy load allowing a larger load to be

moved than with simple force alone Leveraging is used as a

transitive verb, usually in financial discussions such as [1]:

“The use of credit or borrowed funds to improve one's

speculative capacity and increase the rate of return from

an investment.”

The general idea is to employ resources in such a way as to insure

a larger return on the effort (or in financial terms, money) than might

otherwise be realized

How does this relate to manufacturing? And, in specific green

manufacturing? This will depend on the component being

manufactured by a machine or process and its eventual use in a

product

This paper will first provide some definitions so that the use of terms

like green manufacturing, sustainable manufacturing, etc will be

understood Then, the concept of leveraging manufacturing will be

explained and several examples of will be given of situations that

provide leveraging along with some that do not Finally, future

directions in sustainable manufacturing driven by leveraging are

These first steps were proposed as green manufacturing

“technology wedges” in [4] after a concept proposed by Pacala and Socolow [5] to address the big gap between the present trajectory

and a sustainable level – and how to close this gap in 50 years They argued that, rather than trying to find one solution to correct this increasing mismatch between what is required and what is being done, we should concentrate on “technology wedges” – small advances and improvements that, when added up, have the effect

of a large change

These wedges make a lot of sense in the context of manufacturing and sustainability We can visualize sustainability as a relationship between consumption or impact as part of normal business practice compared to a “sustainable level.” For example, in California we store rainfall during the winter months as snow in the Sierra Nevada mountains The amount of snow determines the amount of water

we have to use in the next season for residential, commercial and agricultural use If we use water at a rate that will exhaust the supply before the next rainfall – that is not a sustainable situation

We are using too much and should find a way to conserve or reduce usage We could make the same argument for impact, for example, green house gas generation The atmosphere has a

17

J Hesselbach and C Herrmann (eds.), Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing: Proceedings of the 18th CIRP International

Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, May 2nd - 4th, 2011,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-19692-8_3, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

certain capacity to accommodate green house gases Exceeding

that risks a build up that will endanger future generations according

to the predictions of atmospheric scientists

figure illustrates the normal trend of consumption or impact over

time A small reduction of either one results in a reduced rate of

impact but does not provide enough change to achieve a

sustainable situation The application of technology wedges to,

collectively, bridge the gap between present rate of consumption or

impact and a sustainable level is illustrated with the green triangles

With sufficient wedges, the gap can be closed

Figure 1: Illustration of sustainable consumption and technology

wedges, [6]

It is our role of manufacturing researchers to develop the wedge

technologies Individual wedges might be considered as “green”

manufacturing steps If there are sufficient greening steps we can

achieve sustainable manufacturing

2.2 Tracking progress

To insure that real progress is being made it is necessary to define

metrics to measure change Recall the “master equation” for impact

attributed to John Holdren and Paul Ehrich [7] This equation,

sometimes referred to as IPAT, defines human impact (I) on the

environment as the product of population (P), affluence (A,

measured as GDP/capita), and technology (T, measured as impact

per unit of GDP) Manufacturing has its impact on the T part of the

equation – the impact per unit of technology This is the impact per

GDP of manufactured products By reducing that impact, we start to

1

The challenge is to come up with technology wedges that will

reduce the T part of the équation at a rate sufficiently fast to offset

population growth while at the same time make a dent in the impact

that is already too high

Metrics are used by engineers for analyzing information and data to

enable better decision making, including trade-offs among several

alternatives, and for design For green manufacturing these

metrics could include:

 Pollution (air, water, land)

 Ecological footprint - “fair share” - footprint

 Exergy (available energy) or other thermodynamic measures

To be able to understand the effect of the improvement or change being measured, these can be represented in terms of a "return on investment" - for example, greenhouse gas return on investment (GROI) Other forms of return measure include:

 Energy payback time

 Water (or materials, consumables) payback time

 Efficiency improvement (for example, wrt exergy) Then, a measure of the change in the T term of the impact équation can be determined

For green manufacturing these need to be linked to traditional design and manufacturing parameters And they need to be assessed over all three scopes of ISO 14064 (1- direct emissions from on-site or company owned assets, 2- indirect emissions created on behalf of the company from energy generation or supply, 3- all others resulting from business operation including business travel, shipping of goods, resource extraction and product disposal)

2.3 Leveraging

We can define two different classes of leveraging of manufacturing The difference is due to the magnitude of the impact That is, whether it impacts only the performance of the manufacturing process, machine or system or whether it impacts the performance

of the product resulting from the application of the process, machine

or system An additional distinction must be made for products used

in manufacturing – for example, machine tools

In the case of an improvement, say in energy consumption of a process, we would require that, at minimum, the “cost” of the improvement (in embedded energy, carbon footprint, etc.) would be more than offset but the reduction in energy consumption or carbon footprint in operation of the “improved” process This is the basic definition of energy payback or green house gas return on investment The magnitude of the impact reduction can be measured simply by knowing the number of manufactured products coming from the process over the life time of the process This is a minimum amount of leveraging for any contemplated process improvement to insure that we are making progress

A second, more impressive, leveraging is due to process (or machine or system) improvements that have an inordinately high ability to reduce the impact of the product of the manufacturing operation (or machine or system) over the lifetime of the product use The original process improvement may not have been made

as part of a greening analysis of the process but is due to the introduction of new technology, machine capability or materials It is this second type of leveraging that is likely to have the greatest potential for reducing the T term in the impact equation – making a larger than normal reduction in the product impact/GDP during the product’s life time

Why this distinction is important is discussed in the next section

3 WHY LEVERAGING IS IMPORTANT 3.1 Does manufacturing matter?

The base of this discussion is an assessment of whether or not manufacturing is a significant component of energy and resource consumption and the impact from this consumption, and, then, whether or not changes in manufacturing can really help overall A review of all the data, pie charts and discussions about how much

Keynotes18

of the world’s energy use is attributed to manufacturing is not

presented here

Allwood et al [8] point out that industrial carbon emissions are

predominately due to production of goods in steel, cement, plastic,

paper, and aluminum With the demand for these materials

expected to double at least by 2050, during which the global carbon

emissions are desired to be reduced by at least 50%, simply

improving process efficiency will fall far short Allwood suggests

several strategies for industrial emissions reduction in addition to

process efficiency, increased recycling, and carbon sequestration

and storage, as: (1) reducing demand for materials; (2)

nondestructive recycling; and (3) radical process innovations which

allow shorter, less energy intensive process routes to yield the

completed component These all address the T term in the IPAT

equation

But, for “general product manufacturing” is there enough that can

be accomplished by manufacturing improvement? Specially if we

apply this to what many of use consider our core process

capabilities – like machining?

3.2 Automobile manufacturing example

If we think about where the major energy consumption associated

with a product occurs we can divide the space up into two regions –

manufacturing and use We see that "things that don't move or

need power to operate" like bridges, furniture, etc are dominantly

manufacturing phase consumers of resources and, by extension,

impact Things that do "move and need power to operate" like

automobiles, airplanes, buildings, etc are use phase heavy

Interesting to note are the items that are close to the break-even

(imagine a 45 degree line on a plot of use vs manufacturing impact

graph for products)

So, what about automobiles? At a presentation at the ICMC

Conference in Chemnitz in September 2010 by a representative of

the automaker VW, the speaker mentioned that, by their analysis,

about 20% of the impact of a typical VW Golf A4 car came from

manufacturing while 80% was due to the use phase One can find

data on the GolfA3 (marketed from 1991-1999, also called the Polo)

[9], shows the energy consumption during the manufacturing phase

of the GolfA3 in Gj/auto

Materials and part suppliers account for much of the embedded

energy in the manufacturing phase Machined components, such as

the gear box and engine are a small percentage of the total

(accounting for about 10% overall or about 25% with materials and

parts from suppliers included)

If one looks at the impact of the auto, including car production, fuel

production and consumption in the use phase dominates all

categories of emissions to air and water with the exception of dust

generated by material production and casting of some components

and painting of the vehicle and biological oxygen demand impacts

on water

Looking a bit closer at the data above, does this make sense in

terms of reducing the impact/GDP? If we focus only on the

manufacturing phase we may not be encouraged - specially if the

predominant impact is in the use phase

Consider the VW Golf example of 20% manufacturing phase impact

versus 80% use phase impact If we think about the areas many in

our community work in a lot, machining, and we assume about 20%

of the manufacturing is machining or machining related, that gives

us a potential for improvement of 20% of 20% or only 4% (and then

only if we get rid of all machining!) Let's assume that some of the

better technology for improving machining efficiency is employed,

say some specialty tooling material that reduces machining power

consumption, and that is worth another 20% Now we are down to 8% (20% of 4%)

Figure 2: Primary energy consumption for VW Golf manufacture [9]

Figure 3: Use vs manufacturing phase impacts for VW Golf [9] One could argue that this is hardly worth the effort it would seem

Of course, if you are paying the electricity bill for the factory and this 8% technology wedge is added to a lot of others in machine operation it can add up to real savings But, still not impressive compared to use phase impacts That is, impact over the full life cycle of the auto

More recent data from Volkswagen for the Golf A4 indicates that some improvements have been made (for example reduction of primary energy used in production, use and end of life due primarily

to improved fuel consumption (a 20% improvement from 8.1 liter of fuel/100 km to 6.5 l/100 km for the gasoline engine) [10]

3.3 Accounting for more of manufacturing’s impact

The question is, then, what is the true leverage effect of manufacturing on the life cycle impact of a consumer product – one that has its dominant impact in the use phase rather than the manufacturing phase? If we are speaking of a manufacturing machinery builder, like a machine tool company, then we can argue that the machine tool has its largest impact in the use phase so that improvements in energy efficiency of the machine will been seen over its life [11] since it is the “product.”

The thesis here is simple If improvements in manufacturing yield a substantial reduction in the life cycle impact of a product, should not manufacturing get some of the “credit” for this improvement And,

by similar reasoning, can we claim this as a part of “green manufacturing” contribution towards sustainability since it is a major element in reducing the technology impact of the product – the T term in the IPAT equation?

The next section gives some examples of this leveraging effect

4 EXAMPLES OF LEVERAGING

4.1 Basic influences

Manufacturing has a number of fundamental effects on a product In

no particular order, manufacturing can:

 guarantee a certain level of precision or accuracy of the

produced component

 allow the use of advanced materials (enhance strength to

weight, improved surfaces, wear resistance, thermal stability,

etc.)

 allow reductions in process steps or sequences

 combine processes for enhanced effects as in hybrid processes

or mill-turn machine tools

 achieve complex shapes or features to improve performance

 and so on

There are more but you can get the idea

How these manufacturing induced effects influence the life-cycle

performance of the product must be clearly understood to explain

the full potential of leveraging This influence usually comes from

the extension of one of the above listed effects onto the energy

consumption or “environmental performance” of the product the

manufactured components are used in

A simple example might be a spindle motor for a machine tool If

the production technique for the motor, using advanced magnetic

materials, allows the construction of a motor that extracts more

useful work from the energy supplied to it, then the manufacturing

effect is leveraged over the life of the spindle

Alternatively, if the improvement in energy consumption is due to

controller related performance enhancement, as the 40% reduction

in energy consumption illustrated by Mori Seiki due to overall

system component improvements and optimum acceleration of

spindle and servo motor during machining [12], this is not due to

manufacturing leveraging but, certainly, improves the life cycle

impact of the machine tool – the product in this case

4.2 Leveraging examples

Two examples are presented here that illustrate the concept of

leveraging manufacturing with life cycle impacts on the product that

the manufactured component(s) is (are) used in And the life cycle

impact is substantial and most of the benefits are due to

manufacturing

Both of these examples relate to improved machining tolerances

and their impact on product performance On an aircraft airframe (a

large one like a B747 or the A380) savings in weight correspond

directly to savings in fuel And many other aspects of an aircraft

scale with weight This is, to some extent, true also for an

automobile That is the second example

If the machining process for large airframe components is under

control and precision manufacturing principles applied, a reduction

in machining tolerances from approximately +/- 150 microns to +/-

100 microns on the features of the airframe can account for a

weight reduction of 4500 kg/aircraft and substantial fuel savings

(8%) [13] This allows an increase of 10% in passenger load (the

engines don't need to carry as much plane), or increase in cargo

payload and a substantial reduction in manufacturing cost of the

aircraft (less material and improved assembly) and the

accompanying reduction in scrap And less fuel consumption

accumulated savings over the life of the aircraft are incredible The

fuel consumption per km is estimated as 11.88 L/km (or about 5

30.64 kg/km [14] A reduction in fuel consumption of 8% results in a

aircraft – many millions of kilometers

The next example relates to a similar impact on product use for an automobile It is also due to enhancement in manufacturing capability due to precision manufacturing

The improvement for the Boeing aircraft example was based on tightened tolerances allowing increased structural performance by better control on dimensions - resulting in lower weight components Looking at improvements in engine performance for automobiles we can see similar improvements The performance (power density in kW/l) of diesel passenger car engines is shown in

Figure 4: Change in power density over time for Diesel engines

[15]

surface finishes, better control of orifice size and shape on the fuel injector nozzles (with diameters on the order of 60 microns), tighter control on cooling channels and fluid flow in the engine due to enhanced casting techniques, and so forth, the engine (still working

on the same old Diesel principles) performs dramatically better The "dog leg" in the chart above corresponds to the introduction of high performance, precision, manufacturing to the power train manufacturing in the automobile In the years since 2000, the power density has been improved by double (in 2007) and anticipated to quadruple by 2020, Similar improvements can be seen in the transmission as well And, with advanced sheet metai forming technologies (another manufacturing technology enhancement) and replacement of metal components with non-metallics (manufacturing and materials enhancement) more improvements would be anticipated This is not to suggest that precision technologies had not been employed before But, the engine and associated fuel injectors, etc were designed to take advantage of increasing manufacturing performance and, as a result, yielded tremendous product performance as well

And that is how to reduce the technology impact per GDP Manufacturing dramatically increased the efficiency of fuel utilization in the internal combustion engine

The small percentage of manufacturing phase improvement has a giant leverage effect on use phase impact Since the principal element in use phase impact of the automobile, the reduction in consumption (due to increased power density of the engine), hits both the fuel production impact as well as the fuel consumption impact there is additional impact In the Golf A3 data for emissions,

from driving and 9 % from fuel production) A doubling of the fuel economy, by manufacturing induced engine efficiency

Keynotes20

improvements, by precision machining and processing will

essentially halve that (same distance driven) - or account for, in the

the process of manufacturing enhancement, we save most of our

we get a return of 16 tons (a factor of 40!)

4.3 The fine print

There are constraints of course The technology enhancement (the

“wedge”) needed to improve precision of the machine tool to enable

some of the product performance increases may not be strictly

“green” (meaning there is a cost in terms of embedded energy,

energy/unit product, or other measure) Trends in machine and

process design are showing that one can enhance the performance

of the manufacturing process and also realize reduced impacts

Recall the Mori Seiki example cited earlier But, this needs to be

carefully accounted for

A second issue is whether or not manufacturing can rightfully claim

credit for any or all of these improvements under leveraging

Traditional design textbooks outline the design process in stages

with clever designs being turned into real products through

manufacturing So, for sure, the role of manufacturing as a design

enabler is undisputed In that case, we can claim the benefits of

leveraging manufacturing as well

5 SUMMARY

This paper has proposed a view of the potential for manufacturing

to play a more significant role in reducing the environmental impact

of technology The manufacturing capabilities that yield aircraft or

automobile engines with dramatically reduced fuel consumption, or

structural components for aircraft that allow higher payloads per unit

of aircraft structure, or advanced processes that yield lower power

electronics for reduced energy consumption, and so on, are

examples of leveraging manufacturing

We cannot claim all benefits in product performance stem from

manufacturing An enhanced wash cycle on a home laundry that

reduces water and energy consumption has likely very little to do

with manufacturing technology improvements But we should stand

up for those manufacturing driven improvements that, on their own,

are responsible for substantial environmental impact reductions

The challenge raised by researchers, like Allwood, pointing out the

fundamental changes needed in production technologies (specially

for materials processing and efficient material use) must be

complimented by the tremendous potential for leveraged

manufacturing It points out, at least, the significant role that

manufacturing (broadly defined and over all processes and

systems) can play in creating a sustainable future

Finally, we need some numbers! The arguments presented here

are based substantially on empirical observations A more careful

analysis of the tradeoffs of competing technologies with respect to

potential leveraging effects must be done for several case studies

That is on the agenda for our future work

6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author acknowledges the researchers and affiliates of the

Laboratory for Manufacturing and Automation (LMAS) and partners

in the Sustainable Manufacturing Partnership (SMP) for their helpful

discussions and support of this research For more information see

lmas.berkeley.edu and smp.berkeley.edu

2010

Implementing Green Manufacturing”, NAMRI Trans., 35, pp 193-200

[5] Pacala, S and Socolow, R., (2004): “Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies,” Science 13 August 2004: Vol 305

no 5686, pp 968 – 972

Processes, Systems and Products,” Proc ICMC Sustainable Production for Resource Efficiency and Ecomobility, Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, September, 2010

growth, Science, 171, 1212-1217

[8] Allwood, J., Cullen, J., and Milford, R (2010): “Options for Achieving a 50% Cut in Industrial Carbon Emissions by 2050,” Environ Sci Technol., 44 (6), pp 1888–1894

of Stuttgart, Germany from a presentation of A Horvath, Berkeley, 1995

UC-[10] Schweimer, G., and Levin, M., “Life Cycle Inventory for the Golf A4” posted on line at

www.volkswagenag.com/ /Golf_A4 Life_Cycle_Invento ry /golfa4_ english.pdf; accessed 1/18/11

[11] Diaz, N., Choi, S., Helu, M., Chen, Y., Jayanathan, S., Yasui, Y., Kong, D., Pavanaskar, S., and Dornfeld, D (2010):

“Machine Tool Design and Operation Strategies for Green Manufacturing,” Proc 4th CIRP International Conference on High Performance Cutting, Gifu, Japan

[12] Mori, M (2010): “Power consumption reduction of machine Tools,” présentation at 2010 CIRP General Assembly CWG-EREE, August, Pisa

[13] Thompson, D (1995): presentation at Symposium on Research Issues in Precision Manufacturing, Univ of California, Berkeley, September, 1995

[14] much-co2-released-by-aeroplane/; accessed 1/18/11

http://micpohling.wordpress.com/2007/05/08/math-how-[15] Berger, K (2005): Daimler, Presentation at CIRP January

2005 Meeting, WG on Burr Formation, Paris

Sustainability Engineering by Product-Service Systems

Günther Seliger Department of Machine Tools and Factory Management, Chair of Assembly and Factory Management,

Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Abstract

Product-Service Systems offer high potentials for increasing the use productivity of resources Functionality can be

provided in specification how, on place where and in time when needed for the user by modern communication and

logistics Business models change from selling products to selling functionality due to fixed costs of under utilized

products being higher than additional costs for communication on demand and supply, and for transport of artifacts to

places of performance Remanufacturing, disassembly and reassembly enables for same products and components

performing as required in consecutive different usage phases thus avoiding disposal of valuable resources Methods for

product design with respective components, performance supervision, maintenance of components, configuration for

different usage specifications, user’s and provider’s qualification, ubiquitous access on information about demand and

supply to create efficient functionality markets, all represent product related services for the functionality business thus

achieving more functionality with fewer resources

Keywords:

Sustainability Engineering; Value Creation; Product-Service Systems

1 INTRODUCTION

Sustainability Engineering is on exploiting the dynamics of fair

competition to achieve the required sustainability of our global living

conditions by processes of knowledge creation and innovation

Product-Service Systems (PSS) exploit design potentials for new

business models by shaping interrelations between tangible

products and intangible services They enable for innovative

function, availability and result oriented business models These

models can help in reducing resource consumption and waste

generation by fewer resources providing more functionality

Supplier’s motivation is changed from selling ever higher numbers

of products to the customer with ever lower costs of manufacturing

to selling ever more functionality to the customer with ever lower

input of resources The old manufacturing paradigm of producing

big lot sizes for low costs per piece is challenged by providing more

functionality with fewer resources Tangible resources are partly

substituted and partly supplemented by intangible services

Sustainability in its three dimensions of economic, environmental

and social concern helps in directing the processes of technological

innovation Economic challenge is in market competitivity of

resource saving product service design Environmental challenge is

in resource efficiency and effectiveness, e.g no longer disposing

non renewable resources by consequent adaptation for consecutive

different usage phases, also in substituting non renewable by

renewable resources within the constraints of sufficient renewable

resource generation Social challenge is in establishing the

awareness of users and developers for mankind’s threat if not

adapting ways of living to fair wealth distribution within

environmental constraints

How can PSS contribute to meet the challenge of sustainability by

competitive offers of minimal necessary tangible products

integrated with required service functionality? The threat of ignoring

the conflict potentials of unequal global wealth distribution, the

saving potentials in resource exploitation for useful applications is

illustrated Chances of PSS approaches for exploiting these

potentials are described

2 CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABILITY

Predominantly all over the world industries are still working in source-sink economic patterns relying on resource availability without limitations Non renewable resources are often exploited for only one usage phase with consecutive disposal However, there are huge potentials of recycling of products, components and materials Also, substituting non renewable by renewable resources within their limits of regeneration can help avoiding upcoming shortages in resource supply for a growing population with expectations on higher standards of living

Earth’s resources are limited Out of the present global population

of about 6.7 billion people -9.5 billion are prognosed for 2050-, less than one billion belong to the industrialized world in Europe, North America, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and few islands of wealth China with its population of 1.3 billion and India with 1.1 as well as other developing and emerging countries are striving to catch up If the lifestyles of the upcoming nations are shaped by the existing, predominating technologies, then the resource consumption will exceed every accountable economic, environmental and social bound

The question arises, which production technologies can serve as basis for dealing with this growth, in an economically, environmentally and socially responsible manner Independent of the exact limits of access to virgin non-renewable resources, alone due to the increasing material demands of more people with increasing standards of living, non-renewable resources worn out after usage phases of products must not be disposed any more but regained in product or material cycles

Due to limited availability and increasing demand an increasing increase in prices for non renewable resources as aluminum, copper and iron can be observed Between 2006 and 2009 the costs for import of raw materials to Germany have grown from 31 to

86 billion Euros, including 16 billion Euros for metals The price for copper e.g increased from 3300 Dollars per ton in the beginning of

2009 to 6000 Dollars per ton in August 2010, an increase to 10,000 Dollars per ton is expected for 2011 Expanding application areas

22

J Hesselbach and C Herrmann (eds.), Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing: Proceedings of the 18th CIRP International

Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, May 2nd - 4th, 2011,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-19692-8_4, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

for copper are expected in electrical vehicles and infrastructure for

electrical energy supply Rare earth materials are required for

luminous diodes, batteries and photovoltaics, all areas with

expected market growth in applications but limitations in raw

material purchase Recycled material becomes the only source of

raw material available in the long term [1] Already 56 percent of

copper applied for manufacturing in Germany has been recycled

Keeping ownership on materials to avoid consequences of

fluctuating prices for a stable functionality business might be a

competitive approach for innovative PSS

Energy availability is a fundamental premise for any material wealth

creation Nearly one third of primary resources for global energy

conversion presently stems from crude oil Estimates on remaining

reserves lie between 1000 and 3000 billion barrels The date of

peak-oil, i.e the date from when on oil production remains constant

or even decreases, is expected for 2020 at latest Obviously saving

primary resources for energy consumption in global dimensions is a

huge challenge in responsible management of resources

The amount of primary resources for energy consumption

worldwide has increased from 2000 to 2008 by 25% to over 500 EJ

Germany with 80 million people accounting for one percent of the

world's population of 6.7 billion consumes energy of 14 EJ or 4

PWh accounting for about three percent of world consumption

Crude oil with 30%, natural gas with almost 20% and coal with 25%

have taken about three quarters of primary resource contribution for

energy are contributing another quarter of world primary resources

for energy consumption [2] [3]

energy flow without losses in transformation from primary resources

to useful applications Passenger and goods transport each account

for one eighth of consumption in final application, industrial

production for one third, and two fifth are for infrastructure with

substantial proportions for building, heating and food production

Between primary resource input and final consumption, there are

many different processes and production facilities The key

elements of this transformation are the direct fuel use in machinery

and equipment with approximately three fifths and electrical

generation with two fifth shares The movement of vehicles and

machinery is generated with about one third, and process heat with

about half of primary energy use

The consecutive steps and different paths in conversion of primary

resources to energy driven operations offer big potentials for

increasing efficiency and effectiveness Often these potentials are already baled out within the balance frame of respective entrepreneurial institutional activities By integrated product and service innovation PSS independently from traditional balance frames can create new business models of providing more functionality in application by less investment in instrumental facilities E.g providing customers with energy saving equipment thus saving electricity consumption can be cheaper than investing

in additional power stations Diesel engines directly driven by fuel might save conversion losses of electrical power generation required for electrical drives Overcoming grown thinking, living and working habits requires new means of convincing people by teaching and learning, by softly integrating innovative artefacts in existing living environments Mutual dependencies of tangible products and intangible services must be thoroughly considered for successful implementation [4]

The ecological footprint represents a measure for the consumption

of renewable resources About one quarter of earth’s surface, accounting for 11.3 billion hectares, can be considered as biologically productive area contributing to the regeneration of resources The average amount of biocapacity per capita on earth

is calculated by dividing the productive area by the number of people on earth, what results in 1.8 global hectares biocapacity per capita Since approximately 1985, resource consumption on a global level is higher than the ecological capacity For 2050, an impossible biocapacity of two globes would be required if the trend

of increasing renewable resource consumption would be not stopped

Half of global population is still living without access on electricity and telecommunication, earning less than two Dollars per day One fifth of global population disposes of four fifths of global wealth Environmental damages caused by unbalanced resource exploitation and considerable lacks in human education lead to social conflicts and terror Presently there are 25 local wars on the earth Culture and education for billions of people have become the dominant social challenge for human survival on earth PSS approach seems to be promising means to cope with this challenge Also the global population growth must be stopped by better standards of living without increasing resource consumption Social stability can only be achieved if mankind is able to create jobs and living conditions of human dignity worldwide and not only in the technologically developed regions of East Asia, North America and

shape the living environments for the global citizens from the

regions of prosperity, but also bring an irresponsible waste of

resources The responsibility of the wealthy minority enables for

technological development based on criteria of sustainability in

order to harmonize the quality of life and resource use This

challenge offers with great opportunities in sustainable services,

products and processes for value creation Sustainable

development with social innovation is also important to open the

hungry market of more than 5 billion people who still have not

enough purchasing power

Due to the unbalanced development along developed, emerging

and developing countries, it is difficult to reach a new agreement

after Kyoto Protocol to reduce the carbon emission Carbon

emission relates with the economic development and environmental

protection Governments are conflicting about individual national

wealth development, access on resources and responsibility for

climate change But all of them are concerned about how to reduce

the CO2 emissions to protect the environment

The rationally required sustainable global development can

stimulate the forces of human initiative and creativity Sustainable

global development could eliminate the unfair distribution of

opportunities by technological and social innovation [5] Mankind’s

wealthy minority has the responsibility to identify innovative paths

for sustainability engineering Great opportunities are opened in

sustainable services, products and processes for value creation

Social innovation can help to open the new markets of more than 5

billion people Technologies from developed and emerging

countries can empower help for the poor people to help themselves

Product-Service Systems (PSS) offer chances to fulfill the challenge

of sustainable development The potentials of PSS in resource

saving and qualification may succeed to develop economies and

civilization in the global discourse

3 VALUE CREATION

Value creation can be modelled considering both, actual

entrepreneurial activities in globalized markets and requirements of

sustainable development Market dynamics can be powerful drivers

in achieving sustainable develoment for global mankind along

economical, evironmental and social criteria by technological

value creation Value creation factors are integrated in modules to

be designed along economic, environmental and social criteria of

sustainability Cooperation and competition among entrepreneurs

drive for horizontally and vertically integrating modules thus

constituting value creating networks There are different levels of

hierarchy in value creation From manufacturing tool and operation

via value creating cells and systems, whole factories to national and

international entrepreneurial conglomerates or knowledge

generating educational communities Each of them from top-down

pespective is considered as a network consisting of modules and

from a bottom-up perspective as a module together with other

modules contributing to a network Modules or networks can be set

up under different infrastructural conditions in industrialized,

emerging or developing countries respectively regions within

countries Value creation in an engineering perspective addresses

the development of artefacts for useful applications thus shaping

areas of human living From the module view in a bottom-up

perspective entrepreneurs try to get their specific value contribution

integrated in higher level networks, whereas, from the network view

in a top-down perspective entrepreneurs try to purchase original

elements enriching their product system from lower level modules

The dynamics of demand and supply in this mutual dependency

offers chances for directing global value creation to pathes of

sustainability Referring to requirements of communication, to training and educaton, to maintenance and repair, to knowledge creation and information access for continuous improvement, to setting up competitive offers for resource saving functionality markets, PSS can considerably contribute to sustainable value creation

Figure 2 : Architecture of Sustainable Value Creation

4 POTENTIALS OF PRODUCT-SERVICE SYSTEMS 4.1 Business Model

Product-Service Systems (PSS) are an integrated product and service offering that delivers values in industrial applications PSS must be understood as a new product consisting of integrated product and service shares, which comprises the integrated and mutually determined planning, development, provision and use PSS includes the dynamic adoption of changing customer demands and provider abilities The partial substitution of product and service shares over the lifecycle is possible There are different models for PSS, the individual business models can be differentiated by further criteria [6] They differ in the responsibility of production result, personnel, service initiative and finally the ownership of the products, e.g machine tools This means the provider takes over responsibilities in the production process by delivering service personal, initiating services and ensuring the production quality, see

Keynotes24

A competitive provider offers product functionality, availability or a

result in quality, time and location as required by the user Multiple

usage phases make a PSS competitive by maximizing the

utilization of resources and can be achieved by disassembly,

component adaptation, and reassembly The opportunity to

optimize the use phase is the key for success in consequence of

more freedom of business and engineering development

The PSS business model takes as its starting point the goal of

achieving an integrated functional solution to meet client demands,

moves away from phase based servicing and discrete resource

optimization, to system resource optimization which is utility based

The resulting PSS can produce synergies in profit, competitiveness

and environmental benefits The potential eco-efficiency of a PSS

relies on system optimization in resource use and emissions

because of the stakeholders’ convergence of interests [7] Further

PSS enables an equipartition for the use of technology It allows the

adoption of the right technology and a competitive production also

for low-budget small medium enterprises (SMEs) and emerging

countries at the time, place and in the specification which is

needed

PSS can lead to reduced resource use and waste generation The

increase in sales of services can balance reductions in sold

products Employment lost in manufacturing can be balanced by

jobs created in services As a business concept, PSS have the

potential to improve access to technology worldwide With PSS,

consumers worldwide would have less need to buy, maintain,

dispose of, and eventually replace a product In fact, the quality of

the service, and thus consumer satisfaction, may improve with PSS

because the service provider has the incentive to use and maintain

equipment properly, increasing both efficiency and effectiveness

The incentive also exists for producers to design closed-loop

systems for equipment based on designs for higher durability and

recyclability [7] To be competitive on the market the PSS providers

have a strong interest in using a minimum of production resources,

which means maximum utilization and usage of products and

components Therefore a provider will use production equipment

out of a PSS in a new or other PSS Resources will have several

life cycles This is possible because of the shift of the ownership in

PSS and leads to a cycle economy

Human beings in the phases of planning, development and delivery

of PSS play a major role; especially the human-machine interaction

in the phase of delivery is in the focus Different qualification of

technicians and company-spanning cooperation in the field of

industry demand a specific support concept during the delivery of

social motivation and technical progress, being sustainability

contributions of PSS

Figure 4: Contribution on Sustainability by PSS

In developed countries, which already have a large environmental footprint arising from a high rate of per capita resource consumption, PSS can facilitate the transition toward a more service-oriented, sustainable society The service industry gets the chance to find new and increasing market opportunities Other benefits include reduced dependance on externally produced resources and reduced load on waste disposal facilities For emerging countries, PSS may represent a more promising and environmentally sound path to economic development since it enables them to bypass the development stage characterized by individual ownership of goods

A cycle economy is not only environmentally reasonable but also a chance for new businesses Selling functionality instead of selling products is advantageous once additional costs for information processing and logistics are less than costs for underutilized

Figure 5: Selling functionality instead of selling products From the point of qualification the use of technology is limited Especially in developing countries the qualification level of worker and technicians is not comparable to the one in the developed world However, the provider has to take care that his products are usable, as promised in the contract The challenge is to qualify the local worker and technician from the customer or contractors and supervise their work from distance

4.2 Knowledge Management

The close co-operation with suppliers and service producers as well

as with final consumers can cope with these gaps While relationships with suppliers are addressed by ISO 14000-series standards and environmentally conscious purchasing practices, downstream practices are addressed by extended producer responsibilities and Product Stewardship concepts Integrated Chain Management (ICM) specifically addresses the issue of involving several actors in order to improve the environmental performance of products However, problems associated with ICM are also going to be relevant for PSS due to a similar value chain basis that is extended in PSS into a value creation network These problems include trade-offs between co-operation and internal environmental management; the problem of choosing wrong actors who do not have the power or knowledge to change or influence events; information sharing and transparency, and barriers from material flows crossing borders and a variety of regulatory frameworks in different countries By sharing information the provider will be enabled to identify the customer needs and enhance his business relation with new features satisfying the customer needs By this a long relationship can be established, which has to be seen as a partnership

Due to the shift in the ownership of products PSS business models give a platform to collect information from every PSS which earlier