[...]... planted and were not maintained with fertiliser or insecticide applications People in the surveyed villages mostly used wood for cooking (70–80% of participants) Rubber wood was the main source of fuel wood since it can be easily found in local rubber plots as well as in rubber plantations nearby The villagers collected fallen branches or dead trees In the villages near to rubber plantations, residents... for seedling stage in the forest, the rubber smallholding (SH_DM and SH_AT), and plantations (P_AT and P_DM) 43 Figure 31 Three dominant sapling species in forest, smallholding (SH_DM and SH_AT) and plantation (P_AT and P_DM) based on Important Value Index 44 Figure 32 Species accumulation curve for sapling stage in the forest, rubber smallholding (SH_DM and SH_AT) and plantations. .. 2004) Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) has a long history of establishment in Indonesia The first rubber tree was introduced by Hofland and planted in the Bogor Botanical Gardens in 1864 as part of a collection1 The Figure 1 Koompasia excelsa (kayu raja) development of rubber plantations in North Sumatra in 19202 was driven by the increase in the demand for The species is well known as a honey-bee tree rubber. .. owing to topography Most villagers in each area mentioned this All rubber plots under mixed and monoculture systems were perceived as having a good value in preventing erosion, while oil palm plots were of relatively low value Interestingly, in Cluster 3, in particular in Huta Rao village, farmers agreed that the use of the rubber estate for erosion control was good, as the village was in a mountainous... carbon reference in the forest, rubber smallholdings and rubber plantations 50 Figure 40 Value of Shannon-Wiener (H’) and Eveness (E’) indices in different habitat types in PT BSRE and its surroundings 54 Figure 41 Number of species and individuals (abundance) in different habitat types in PT BSRE and surroundings 55 Figure 42 Bird composition guilds in different habitat... stage in the forest, rubber smallholding (SH_DM) and plantations (P_AT and P_DM) 46 Figure 34 Three dominant pole species at forest, rubber smallholding (SH_DM and SH_AT) and plantation (P_AT and P_DM) based on Important Value Index 46 Figure 35 Species accumulation curve for tree stage in the forest and rubber smallholding (SH_DM and SH_AT) 47 Figure 36 Three dominant... colonial government to plant rubber However, people collected the fallen rubber seeds clandestinely and planted them in their gardens mixed with other trees, such as pepper, coffee and benzoin (Styrax spp.) Since then until the present, rubber smallholders have maintained both agroforestry and monocultural systems in Sumatra These man-made ecosystems should be taken into account in the overall landscape... producers of high quality and quantities of rubber latex Six villages were selected surrounding the plantation, taking into consideration the village’s position (inside or outside the plantation area), distance to the forest and rubber as one of the main sources of livelihood Selected villages are presented in Table 1 with more detailed information and spatial rendering in Figure 5 Based on local consultations... livelihood source Rubber Moderate Bordering Cluster 2 Rubber Rubber Close Far Cluster 3 Oil palm Close Bordering Cluster 3 Rubber Rubber Oil palm Moderate Close Far Far Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 1 Rubber 2.3 Local classification and land-use values During discussions with farmers, questions about land-use values referred to the use and importance of the land in people’s lives, while questions on biodiversity. .. land uses 41 Figure 28 Three dominant seedling species in forest, smallholding (SH_DM and SH_AT), and plantation (P_AT and P_DM) based on Important Value Index 42 Figure 29 Dendrogram and clustering analysis of seedling species comparison between forest, rubber plantation, and rubber smallholding, where the highest value indicates the nearest similarity 43 Figure . richness. In Indonesia, owing to high deforestation, many forest areas, particularly in Sumatra, are declining rapidly. Large forest areas were lost due to interactions between the granting of logging. (Phylloscopus inornatus). They play a role in controlling insect populations, which are commonly found as pests in tree crop plantations. The differences in the tree composition of the three habitats in. sapling stage in the forest, rubber smallholding (SH_DM and SH_AT) and plantations (P_AT and P_DM) 45 xi Figure 33. Species accumulation curve for pole stage in the forest, rubber smallholding