Water use and conservation potx

Monitor, Evaluate, and Revise Program as Needed Le Federal Conservation Planning Guidelines for Water Utilities .... 2 Water Conservation Planning Approaches Preparing and implementin

HANDBOOK OF Water Use

"Conservation

AMY VICKERS

Contents

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“= AcknoWledgmenEs àĂ cà so XII

PreÍaCe c cQ Q Q Q Q HQ Q HQ HH HQ Y2 XY

Planning é Successful Water Conservation Program, 1

pe Ped bis

= Co Water Conservation Planning Approaches 2

Ten Key Steps to a Successful Conservation Program_ 2

a 7 1 Identify Conservation Goals Bee, 2 Develop a Water-Use Profile and Forecast 3 Evaluate Planned Facilities 4 Identify and Evaluate Conservation Measures 5 Identify and Assess Conservation Incentives 6 Analyze Benefits and Costs 7 Select Conservation Measures and Incentives 8 Prepare and Implement the Conservation Plan 9 Integrate Conservation and Supply Plans, Modify Forecasts 10 Monitor, Evaluate, and Revise Program as Needed Le Federal Conservation Planning Guidelines for Water Utilities 4

và Integrated Resource Planning for Wafer 4

Satie soe What Constitutes a Conservation Measure? 5

— Conservation Measures * Conservation Incentives 2 Residential and Domestic Water Use and Efficiency Measures, 11 Residential Water Uses cccsnsccccsicas toc 60C 665009/66)36 00661606 066 dã 12 Sources of Residential Water Wasfe 16

Advances in Indoor Residential Water-Use Efficiency 17

Benefits and Costs of Residential and Domestic Water Conservation 20

Basic Steps in a Residential Water Audi† 20

š Indoor Residential and Domestic Water-Efficiency Measures 23

vi HANDBOOK OF WATER USE AND CONSERVATION

Zl TOMBES: a ccniernie ence eigen mserecsierenats nis Hae Bae R OS RATS TRS HES ENS TM 24

Water Use by Tonets s scascaa vsnreci sctcansiemmecienan auervints 25

311 Low=Volusmne [Oets ic sis ois wise Se sss STLSSS HHNAWE 27

2.1.2 Wafterless ToiÌefs 47

3.13 Toilet Retrofit Devices cị (ác: trv c2 pácá ca coa 56 2.1.4 Toilet Leak Repair -. - 67

2.2 Urinals .- <<<<<<< + f6 Water Use by Urinals ái s giiet a2 tai 58a 4 Giải 63x:3 G16 eicn05 0464 luêt 76 2.2.1 Low-Volume Urinal - 77

3:0.8.7 WWNGGGUTHIHE::sviceaaaoereoEes-eelaetn cesesisn Gie 78 2.23 Unnal Retrofit Devices oiics cacsaas saewiaes ồaa61630 80 9.24 7 RUĂTHGPHE: ceese=: corynmn nha nnteeemssed 81 2.3 Showerheads cc cece cece ee eee eee eee eee ew eeeees 87 Water Use by SHoWGIlGHS + c2 000033200616 654 Giá á S041 46Sigi2/84 88 2.3.1 Low-Volume Showerheads 89

2.3.2 Showerhead Retroft Devices QỀ XU 640101804 15640010804 9] 2A: TRE ssyecavegrgiosiasoleeeEsiiesvcealbireVaskrvsskdieieiere:s:et0618/6ta7À 102 Water Use by FauCetš . -{Ÿ {sẻ 102 331 EữEf-VURHHEENHHCEH:.ccceaca ceeaxea sa aeea sesosies 104 24.2 Faucet Retrofit Devices coisas cas sicws veaeusagsnsn 105 2.4.3 Faucet Leak Repair and Ad]uštm€HIs 107

2.4.4 Food Disposer Retrofit Optlons - 108

2-5 ClORESWASNGFS:c::ccvccivicsjcasseai¿cc tiêl§i4/6:G:S'š)3:408 308/6 0i6'4021624 115 Water Use by Clothes Washers .- - - 116

2.5.1 High-Efficiency Clothes Washers 118

2.5.2 Clothes Washer Water-Efficiency Practices 119

2:6: ~ DISHWASHERS o-oo o.p 00 nces.seis's noe aan aos RNAS BeBe LSE SNORE 126 Water Use by Dishwashets :os si0s002 cnwesensenaens acne 126 2.6.1 Water-Efficient Dishwashers - 128

2.6.2 Dishwasher Water-Efliciency PracHces 129

LATiđSCSDE WatEf ÚSE:sccvsẽcc xác g2 ong bung G20 E64 Siê 6 bữ ekiế e8 i2 140 Sources of Landscape Water Waste =x 144

Advances in Landscape Water-Use Ffficiency 146

Benefits and Costs of Landscape Water Conservation - 151

Basic Steps in a Landscape Water Audif - 152

Landscape Water-Efficiency Measures - 155

31 Water-Wise Landscape Planning and Design - 156

3.2 Native and Low-Water-Use Turf and Plants - 167

Select Native, Drought-Resistant, or Low-Water-Use Turf Grasses * Select

Native or Low-Water-Use Plants + Avoid Invasive Plants + Verify Growing

Conditions Before Purchasing Plants + Consider Microclimates + Group

Plants by Similar Water Needs (Hydrozones) * Establish Plants Properly

3.3 PraclicalTur[AFe8S - eceeeseeeensseeseeeeseseeeen 178

Limit Turf to Functional Areas + Select Appropriate Grass Species + Use

Alternative Groundcovers * Use Separate Irrigation Systems for Different Hydrozones * Practice Water-Efficient Turf Grass Maintenance

3.4 Landscape Irrigation Systems and Devices - 182

“No Watering” Option * Check for and Repair Leaks + Avoid Oscillating Sprinklers and Sprinkler Heads That Produce Mists or Fine Sprays * Use Containers for Small Areas and Individual Plants + Harvest Rainwater and Use Cisterns * Use Manual Irrigation (Hand-Held Hoses and Portable Sprinklers) * Maximize Automatic Irrigation System Efficiency * Install Drip Irrigation Systems 3.5 Landscape lrrigation Scheduling 203

Water Every Five to Seven Days in Most Regions, up to Twice a Week in Hot, Dry Climates + Limit Watering Cycles to a Maximum of 15 to 30 Minutes * Water During Early Morning Hours * Adjust Automatic Irrigation Schedules at Least Monthly + Base Irrigation Schedules on Adjusted ET Data+ Adjust Irrigation Schedules by Hydrozones - Establish a Site-Specific Water Budget S56 Soil WfDVEINEHES: eaecveeeccoaeeearaerecaraseeasdeeeededsie 212 Perform a Simple “Look and Feel” Soil Test * Analyze Soil* Preserve Existing Topsoil + Reduce Soil Compaction + Prepare Soil + Avoid Overdosing Lawns With Fertilizers ST: MU |CE§:¿ssiissii7vEitivtCCG066i6602266666546066684366%4)VS 215 Select Mulch + Apply Mulch 3.8 Maintenance of Water-Efficient Landscapes 218

Repair Broken Irrigation Systems Promptly * Maintarn Turƒ Grass Efficiently + Fertilize Sparingly * Make Use of Downspouts * Control Weeds + Prune Sparingly + Practice Integrated Pest Management 3.9 Water Decorations and Founfains - 220

II YgtGf Gà acc eo cac ca Gà g2 206204 tIánörE 616100614G60025/A)96810.4014/2 230 S0tIFCES 0 lÉI WatB† WASEEcevcceeecse cac cecci ca de Gg GA42ialicetgaeigA 235 Advances in ICl Water-Use Efficiency -.-. 236

Benefits and Costs of ICI Water Conservation -. 240

Basic Steps in an ICl Water Audif . - 241

ICI Water-Efficiency Measures . 244

41 MeterilgandSubmelerÏif.: : :.::.‹:¡ szcascceseceeeeeee« 244 4:2) Cl6ðIÌR0 8T SARI[RHDN:::cv.ca¿ccvccs¿zá6i g6 v066630 0466263 251 21 VINH WASIBERS oe snm areca nnremmecexocnemn sings wearers Es 252 4.2.2 Vehicle- Washing and Automatic Car Washes 253 42:3 Steraret StETIUIZETS: « oosace cae o:ence ceäŸ vn síŸ Vu V2 VIIÚ 6 0Ÿ ca 256

M 2:42 |HEHCIEIIBE ca aind kia! I4 i04 (6150604109614 9761616768 4)32818003 1A B224 257

My: ‘PRGERSS Wate Gti si cvccscedecaeasabimeereoNiea oieorgseresn 258

4.3.1 Process Washing and Rinsing 258

432 Materials THAR sa kva k bang tiá ia2ce P242 cv SÀD0© 8006 G8 264 4.3.3 Photographic Film and X-Ray Processing 265

4.3.4 Pulp, Paper, and Packaging ProducHon 266

4.4 Commercial Kitchens and Restaurants 267

4.4.1 Food and Drink PrebaraHon 268

4.4.2 Commercial Dishwashers 269

4.4.3 Commercial Food and Garbage Disposers ANd SCrAPPING TROUGHS is esicosnd Gối 25/5614 died OMe He8 273 ie A OPTRA Ss Wee INA CO 274 4.4.5 Ice Cream and Frozen Yogurt Machines 274

4.5 Laundries:and Laundromats os isis ssisescsiccssnscamesiesicniies wor 277 46: SWIMMING POOMS ANG ZO0S «sis vise cxsies cies 62006660 cố can 281 £67 SWIMRMUAZP OOS: « cnecssien wemwanawcis ie newmenenianecmma 282 EOD LOS 6825162 OLNCE CATE NEG LAR TERS 284 áj CŨ0ÌNWSYSIENS scveciciviviccccccGicEis6032666 268663065 288 4.7.1 Once-Through (Single-Pass) Cooling Systems 289

AT:2 Cooling Tower Sie iiscssias isin sits iam wae 292 4.7.3 Evaporative Coolers 303

4.7.4 Equipment Cooling Syst@rse:s vos cccn vswawwe assis cans 307 AB HE8LNQSVSEBN eeccccccevcedeeocecceesxasaaeeaeasaasee 309 4.8.1 Boilers and Steam GeHerđ†OrS 309

ME): EUHH-IHHEEEG vua gà 4 BAN 21 4À— N0) 5451666 Ä 6 EInG G28 1406.8308 313 49 LeaKsandWatir LOSSAS ; eccccccc co rreerecsidaooasaoo 314 4.10 Maintenance Practices for ICI Water Efficiency 318

Agricultural Irrigation Water Use 330

Sources of Agricultural Water Wasfe 341

Advances in Agricultural Water-Use Efficiency 341

Benefits and Costs of Agricultural Water Conservafion 348

Basic Steps in an Agricultural Water Audif 350

Agricultural Water-Efficiency Measures 351

5.1 Measurement of On-Farm Water Use 352

5:2: SOI MBlsftfe M0DNIWTÍD «e:eeesecceosecvecc coocsaooeo.ee 354 5.3 Agricultural lrrigation Scheduling 359

SA: LHSRT|BVEI6yscszyzssgestotcacostEssvvsseogtosstwWaeasioes@wss 365 5.5 FurroWDiking 367

5.6 Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA) 370

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& D6: DEIDTTFRQRHÔN c«szeccsecsrccaoeetvesrocoaeoieodeauadsaeeaeasiadee 377

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Am 50: CoiiSEfVADÔN TÌ|Ớẽ - eo0(2661066200664/33)6660 36668 386

"=—=— 5.11 Canal and Conveyance System Lining and Management 388

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~„., MD The Wat ér Conservation Network, 395

™ 4] 6] rganizations - -. - 396

Water Conservation » Water * Drought + Climate Change + Rivers

and Dams + Education + Codes and Standards + Appliances and

Plumbing Fixtures + Landscape + Rainwater Harvesting and Cisterns *

CN Industrial, Cormmmercial, and Instituonal * Agriculture * Weather

ca Stations + Water Recycling and Reuse * Energy Efficiency

Wat 6.2 Government Agencies and Programs 401

Federal + State, Regional, and Municipal

pati ( te C

HÀ 6.3 International 0rganizations and Agencies 403

; Canada * United Kingdom + Other

6Ä PH_ÍẲ[RHIOẨSssseseycsacacssvisoaaroearveceeeeaeaeaisaeinazcea 403

< _” 6.5 Directories for Water-Efficient Producfs 404

bo”) V77 ME Appliances and Plumbing Fixtures + Landscaping and Irrigation

Products * Industrial, Commercial, and Institutional

Equipment + Agricultural and Irrigation Products

ÄÌÌ GD s00 g50600160020666566600520/66)631089651320034630046/20682816)ãx68 405

A Contents of a Comprehensive Water Conservation Plan, According

to the U.S EPA’s Water Conservation Plan Guidelines 405

B Basic Elements of a Water Integrated Resource Plan 406

C Best Management Practices (BMPs) for

Urban Water Conservation In CaÌi[0rHia 408

D Water and Sewer Rates, Costs, and Savings by Volume of Use 409

E Sample Worksheet: Residential (Indoor) Water Audit 410

F Sample Worksheet: Landscape and Irrigation Water Audit 413

G Sample Worksheet: Industrial/Commercial/Institutional

MIDID( NHI: G9504 gšc0i0S86 c110)30330459118-205016I6568-0/6 417

H Efficient Water Management Practices (EWMPs) for Agricultural Water Suppliers in California 422

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CONVERSION TRO sec 62a bnu 4646665000068 RE ENdGil9ál0tscu0yes 436

DỊSCÍRÌITNET ais xine cxawciewrecees ke k3 nên 6A beiaais aeoewitndiennsieese 446

x HANDBOOK OF WATER USE AND CONSERVATION

2

Water Conservation Planning Approaches

Preparing and implementing a conservation plan can involve a level of com- mitment and resource allocation comparable to that required for conventional water supply planning efforts Although supply-side approaches to amplifying water system capacity are different from demand-side methods, both result in in-

creased system capacity so commensurate investments are justifiable Key steps

in developing a comprehensive water conservation plan are outlined in the box

“Ten Key Planning Steps to a Successful Water Conservation Program” below Similar conservation planning approaches include those described in the U.S Environmental Protection Agency’s (USEPA’s) Water Conservation Plan Guidelines and those incorporated into integrated resource planning for water systems, as described later in this chapter

Ten Key Planning Steps toa Successful Water Conservation cớ

1 Identity Conservation Goals

al peste onset ote percent

a or volume per day)

+ Determine the time frame ofthe program 9

: ‘Srp B8 Ẻ- :

2.Develop a Water-Use Profile and

—

* Identify existing water supply sources and

production capacities (average and peak

demand)

* Determine the impact of prior conservation

_ efforts and regulatory requirements (e.¢.,

plumbing codes, sprinkling ordinances) on wa-

ter demand

HANDBOOK

Wes 3

OF WATER USE

planned expanded or new water supply and

wastewater facilities

Break down cost projections according to re-

quirements for quantity (e.9., water demand

and wastewater flows) versus quality (e.g., regulatory standards for water and waste-

water treatment)

®

AND CONSERVATION

+ Evaluate forecast(s) of anticipated future

water demand, including potential adjust- Conservation Measures

ments (e.g., changes in population growth, * Identify all conservation measures that save

re ee cee en _ water—"hardware” devices and technolo-

ments for water-efficient 2: Hes BH S: DIHEDDANE REiinl;

_pracfices - est

< Develop o matrivel menses that conte con?

sidered options for each customer group, in-

cluding system unaccounted-for water ;

* Evaluate measures in terms of their potential-

water savings, benefits and costs, implemen- tation considerations, and applicable !aws, _

codes, and standards ves Assess market saturation for previously im-

plemented measures (the number of cus-_ eit tem leaks and losses, meter inaccuracies, un- tomers who have installed and continuetouse -

metered uses, theft, and lost revenues a conservation device or who continue to fol-

- resulting from unaccounted-for water low a specific conservation practice) 3 Revise future demand forecasts, taking into Identify any short-term or long-term socio-

account conservation efforts (see the guiđe- economic, aesthetic, and legal obstacles to 2

lines in step 6, “Analyze Benefits and Costs") implementation of the measures

3 Evaluate Planned Facilities 5 Identify and Assess

* Forecast total system capacity over the plan- | Conservation incentives -

ning horizon (years) * Identify incentives that would motivate

Project total, annualized, and unit costs of water users to accept and install conser-

vation devices or implement conservation measures

Assess factors that might be du customer apathy toward conservation, such as low wa-

ter and wastewater costs, declining rate struc- tures, customer affluence, a prevailing

“perfect green lawn” aesthetic, weak

Water Conservation Planning Approaches |

A sound water conservation plan is goal-oriented, cost-effective, and practi-

cal in design and implementation Common goals for conservation programs he beginning is the most

include reducing water waste, optimizing system capacity, containing customer ae: part of the work.” costs, and minimizing environmental burdens associated with water supply and —Plato

wastewater management Because the characteristics and needs of each water

system are unique, the goals of water conservation plans differ from one system

to another

Ideally, development of a conservation plan involves the participation of all

stakeholders—water managers, planners, engineers, financial administrators,

information specialists, the public, businesses, environmental interests, and pol-

icymakers The stakeholders should be involved throughout the planning process,

not just at the end during the public hearing or approval stage

Developing a water-use profile for each customer category—residential, land-

scape, industrial, commercial, institutional, and agricultural—can require a sig-

Pre “ay and peak-day water savings that canbe

ie achieved by each measure, considering such

_ factors as number of eligible customers, de

~ Sired participation rate (number of customers

h needed to accept and adopt a measure), mar

Ea ‘Ket saturation rate, potential removal of the

; 1 device or long-term noncompli-

ieee (ee aed peck EA Ge peso

v2 ate conservation program benefits, in-

sages water supplies; reduced operation

TẾ Phmtenleeciiniitnvee |

ae “sharing, customer benefits (lower Water; ,

bail sewer, and energy bills; reduced landscape

ae _and property maintenance costs and serv-

Fe : consultants, hardware and materials, train-

~ ing, field labor, marketing and education ef-

forts, financial incentives, program monitoring and ,

VỆ -and evaluation), initial fluctuations in utility a orice củ

FeVenues and rate ađjustments, and shorf- + faa on recess ser

term program participant costs (adjustment

es _ to new water-use practices, acceptance of ty evens ares of demanded

new design aesthetics, changes in operation from | conservation,

and maintenance of equipment) * Present plan to ands secure approval from

Plannino a Surcoceful Water Cancervatinn Dracram 2