SWIM Papers - Accounting for Water Use and Productivity ppt

The later papers will report on results of SWIM studies, including inter-sectoral water allocation in river basins, productivity of water, improved water utilizationand on-farm water use

Accounting for Water Use and Productivity

SWIM Papers

In an environment of growing scarcity and competition for water, increasing the tivity of water lies at the heart of the CGIAR goals of increasing agricultural productivity,protecting the environment, and alleviating poverty

produc-TAC designated IIMI, the lead CGIAR institute for research on irrigation and watermanagement, as the convening center for the System-Wide Initiative on Water Manage-ment (SWIM) Improving water management requires dealing with a range of policy, in-stitutional, and technical issues For many of these issues to be addressed, no single cen-ter has the range of expertise required IIMI focuses on the management of water at thesystem or basin level while the commodity centers are concerned with water at the farmand field plot levels IFPRI focuses on policy issues related to water As the NARS are be-coming increasingly involved in water management issues related to crop production,there is a strong complementarity between their work and that of many of the CGIAR cen-ters that encourages strong collaborative research ties among CGIAR centers, NARS, andNGOs

The initial publications in this series cover state-of-the-art and methodology papersthat assisted the identification of the research and methodology gaps in the priority projectareas of SWIM The later papers will report on results of SWIM studies, including inter-sectoral water allocation in river basins, productivity of water, improved water utilizationand on-farm water use efficiency, and multiple uses of water for agriculture The papersare published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically They may be copiedfreely and cited with due acknowledgment

Randolph Barker

SWIM Coordinator

SWIM Paper 1

Accounting for Water Use and Productivity

David Molden

International Irrigation Management Institute

P O Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka

The author: David Molden is the Research Leader of the Performance Assessment Program

of the International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka

Several ideas and critical comments were received when preparing this document Theauthor would like to acknowledge the creative inputs and comments from HaraldFrederiksen, Andrew Keller, David Seckler, Chris Perry, Wim Bastiaanssen, R.Sakthivadivel, Daniel Renault, and Yvonne Parks

Molden, D 1997 Accounting for water use and productivity SWIM Paper 1 Colombo, Sri

Lanka: International Irrigation Management Institute

/ water management / irrigation management / water supply / terminology / performance indexes / water use / water allocation / productivity /

ISBN 92-9090-349 X

© IIMI, 1997 All rights reserved

Responsibility for the contents of this publication rests with the author

Water Balance Approach 3

Water Accounting Definitions 4

Accounting Components at Use, Service, and Basin Levels 7

Examples of Water Accounting 10

The Water Accounting Research Agenda 13

Literature Cited 15

ICRAF International Council for Research in Agroforestry

IIMI International Irrigation Management Institute

IRRI International Rice Research Institute

M&I Municipal and Industrial uses

NARS National Agricultural Research System(s)

NGOs Nongovernmental Organizations

SGVP Standardized Gross Value of Production

SWIM System-Wide Initiative on Water Management

TAC Technical Advisory Committee of the CGIAR

CGIAR Centers

CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical

CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research

CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maize y Trigo

CIP Centro Internacional de la Papa

ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry AreasICLARM International Center for Living Aquatic Resources ManagementICRAF International Centre for Research in Agroforestry

ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid TropicsIFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute

IIMI International Irrigation Management Institute

IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

ILRI International Livestock Research Institute

IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute

IRRI International Rice Research Institute

ISNAR International Service for National Agricultural Research

WARDA West Africa Rice Development Association

Glossary

Available water: the amount of water available to a

ser-vice or use, which is equal to the inflow less the

committed water

Basin or sub-basin accounting: the macro scale of water

accounting for all or part of water basins,

includ-ing several uses of water

Closed basin: a basin where utilizable outflows are

fully committed

Committed water: the part of outflow that is reserved

for other uses

Depleted fraction: the fraction of inflow or available

water that is depleted by process and non-process

uses Depleted fraction can be related to gross

flow (Depleted Fraction of Gross Inflow), net

in-flow (Depleted Fraction of Net Inin-flow), or

avail-able water (Depleted Fraction of Availavail-able Water)

Domain: the area of interest where accounting is to be

done, bounded in time and space

Equivalent yield: a yield value for a base crop derived

from a mixture of crops by using local prices to

convert yields between crops

Fully committed basin: a water basin that has been

de-veloped to the extent that all water has been

al-located or, in other words, all outflows are

com-mitted

Gross inflow: the total amount of inflow crossing the

boundaries of the domain

Net inflow: the gross inflow less the change in storage

over the time period of interest within the

do-main Net inflow is larger than gross inflow when

water is removed from storage

Non-depletive uses of water: uses where benefits are

rived from an intended use of water without

de-pleting water

Non-process depletion: depletion of water by uses other

than the process that the diversion was intendedfor

Open basin: a basin where uncommitted utilizable

out-flows exist

Process depletion: that amount of water diverted and

depleted to produce an intended good

Process fraction: the ratio of process depletion total to

depletion (Process Fraction of Depleted Water) oravailable water (Process Fraction of Available Wa-ter)

Productivity of water: the physical mass of production

or the economic value of production measuredagainst gross inflow, net inflow, depleted water,process depleted water, or available water

Standardized gross value of production: a standard means

of expressing productivity in monetary terms byconverting equivalent yield of a base crop intomonetary units using world prices

Uncommitted outflow: outflow from the domain that is

in excess of requirements for downstream uses

Use level accounting: the micro scale of water

account-ing such as an irrigated field, a household, or aspecific industrial process

Utilizable water: outflow from a domain that could be

used downstream

Water depletion: a use or removal of water from a

wa-ter basin that renders it unavailable for furtheruse

Water services level accounting: the mezzo scale of

wa-ter accounting for wawa-ter services such as tion services or municipal services

Water accounting is a procedure for analyzing the

uses, depletion, and productivity of water in a water

basin context It is a supporting methodology useful

in assessing impacts of field level agricultural

interventions in the context of water basins, the

performance of irrigated agriculture, and allocation of

water among users in a water basin It is being

developed as one of the activities of the System-Wide

Initiative on Water Management (SWIM) of the

CGIAR The purpose of the first phase of this SWIM

Water Accounting Project is to develop standardized

water accounting procedures The specific objectives

of the project are to:

1 Develop and formalize accounting standards for

tracking water depletion within water basins

2 Develop, jointly with the major commodity

cen-ters, an accounting procedure for determining the

status of, and measuring changes in, the

sustain-able output per unit of water effectively depleted

by various crops

3 Apply and test the procedures for water use anddepletion by irrigated agriculture as a component

of selected SWIM and NARS research projects

4 Disseminate the accounting procedures to NARSoperating in both water resources planning andcrop research

This paper is aimed at fulfilling the first twoobjectives It is to be used as a tool to disseminateinformation about standardized water accountingprocedures both for CGIAR centers and for NARS,including those involved in managing irrigation andwater resources IIMI will coordinate activities withIRRI, ICRAF, CIAT, and CIMMYT A second phase ofwater accounting and other SWIM projects will usethe procedures developed here in more detailedinvestigations Ultimately, it is intended that wateraccounting will evolve into a set of generally acceptedand standardized practices

David Molden

Abstract

This paper presents a conceptual framework for water

accounting and provides generic terminologies and

procedures to describe the status of water resource

use and consequences of water resources related

actions The framework applies to water resource use

at three levels of analysis: a use level such as an

irrigated field or household, a service level such as an

irrigation or water supply system, and a water basin

level that may include several uses Water accounting

terminology and performance indicators are

developed and presented with examples at all the

three levels Concepts and terminologies presented

are developed to be supportive in a number ofactivities including: identification of opportunities forwater savings and increasing water productivity;developing a better understanding of present patterns

of water use and impacts of interventions; improvingcommunication among professionals and communica-tion to non-water professionals; and improving therationale for allocation of water among uses It isexpected that with further application, these wateraccounting concepts will evolve into a robust,supporting methodology for water basin analysis

With growing population and limited waterresources, there is an increasing needworldwide to manage water resources bet-ter This is especially true when all or nearlyall water resources in a basin are allocated

to various uses Effective strategies for taining more productivity while maintain-ing or improving the environment must beformulated Wastes and nonproductive usesmust be carefully scrutinized to identify po-tential savings Effective allocation proce-dures that minimize and help resolve con-flicts must be developed and implemented

ob-To assist in accomplishing these tasks,improved procedures to account for waterresource use and productivity are required

Due to vastly different types and scales

of use, communicating about water betweenprofessionals and non-water professionals isquite difficult Policy decisions are oftentaken without a clear understanding of con-sequences on all water users As competi-tion for a limited supply of water increases,

it becomes increasingly important to clearlycommunicate about how water is beingused, and how water resource develop-

ments will affect present use patterns

As irrigation is a large consumer ofwater, developments in irrigation have pro-found impacts on basin-wide water use andavailability Yet, planning and execution ofirrigation interventions often take placewithout consideration of other uses One ofthe main reasons for this restricted view ofirrigation workers is inadequate means todescribe how irrigation water is being used.Irrigation efficiency is the most commonlyused term to describe how well water isbeing used But increases in irrigation effi-ciency do not always coincide with in-creases in overall basin productivity ofwater

Irrigation within a basin context hasbeen dealt with by several researchers.Bagley (1965) noted that failure to recognizethe boundary characteristics whendescribing irrigation efficiency can lead toerroneous conclusions, and noted that waterlost due to low efficiencies is not lost to alarger system In the field of water rights,there is often a clear distinction betweenconsumption and diversion from a

Accounting for Water Use and Productivity

David Molden

All science depends on its concepts These are ideas which receive names.

They determine the questions one asks, and the answers one gets.

They are more fundamental than the theories which are stated in terms of them.

Sir G Thompson

Background

hydrologic cycle (Wright 1964) Bos (1979)identified several flow paths of waterentering and leaving an irrigation project,clearly identifying water that returns to awater basin and is available fordownstream use Willardson (1985) notedthat efficiency of a single irrigation field is

of little importance to the hydrology of abasin, except when water quality isconsidered, and concluded that “basin-wideeffects of increasing irrigation efficiencymay be negative as well as positive.” Bosand Wolters (1989) pointed out that theportion of water diverted to an irrigationproject that is not consumed, is notnecessarily lost from a river basin, becausemuch of it is being reused downstream Itwas shown that high reuse actuallyincreases overall efficiency (Wolters and Bos1990) Van Vuren (1993) listed severalconstraints on the use of irrigationefficiency and pointed out situations whenlower efficiencies are tolerable Palacios-Velez (1994) argues that “water that is lost isnot always necessarily wasted.”

While these works recognizedweaknesses in using efficiency terms, and

scale effects in moving analysis from farm

to irrigated area and to river basin, analternative means of describing waterresource use was not presented Working atabout the same time, alternative terms wereproposed to describe use of water withinbasins by Keller and Keller (1995) witheffective efficiency, and by Willardson et al.(1994) with the use of fractions Recently,works by Seckler (1992, 1993, 1996), Keller(1992), Keller et al (1996), and Perry (1996b)describe many of the considerations to bedealt with in describing irrigation in waterbasins

At this time, a common framework isrequired to describe water use in basins Aframework and common language todescribe the use and productivity of waterresources are presented in the paper Thiswork is developed from an irrigationperspective so that we can betterunderstand the impacts of irrigationinterventions at a water basin scale It isdeveloped in a general manner to describeany water resource use in order to enhancecommunications between practitioners indifferent water resource fields

Objectives

This paper presents concepts and tions necessary to account for water use,depletion, and productivity The accountingprocedures and standards given here aredesigned to be universally applicable forevaluating water management within andamong all sectors A goal of this approach is

defini-to develop a generic, common language foraccounting for uses of water This concep-tual framework provides:

1 the terminology and a procedure thatcan be applied to describe the present

status and consequences of water sources related actions carried out inagriculture and other water sectors;

re-2 a common means for reporting results

of water-related agronomic trials and rigation interventions so that impactscan be better understood in a water ba-sin context; and

ir-3 examples of water accounting at threelevels to test and demonstrate the util-ity of the methodology

Levels of Analysis

Researchers in agriculture, irrigation, and

water resources work with spatial scales of

greatly different magnitudes Agricultural

researchers often focus on a field level or a

plot level dealing with crop varieties and

farm management practices Irrigation

spe-cialists focus on a set of fields tied together

by a common resource—water Water

re-source specialists are concerned with other

uses of water beyond agriculture, including

municipal, industrial, and environmental

uses

An understanding of the interactions

among these levels of analysis helps us to

understand the impacts of our actions A

perceived improvement in water use at the

farm level may improve overall

productiv-ity of water in a basin, or it may reduce

productivity of downstream users Only

when the intervention is placed in the

con-text of a larger scale of analysis can the

an-swer be known Similarly, basin-wide

stud-ies may reveal general concepts about how

water can be saved or productivity of water

increased, but field level information on

how to achieve savings or increase waterproductivity is required Therefore, threedifferent levels of water use are defined forwhich water accounting procedures are de-veloped:

cov-ering all or part of a water basin, cluding several uses of water

as irrigation or municipal water vices

agricul-tural field, a household, or an mental use

environ-The water accounting methodology isdeveloped in a manner such that it can begenerically used for irrigation, municipal,industrial, environmental, or other uses ofwater But the focus of this paper will be onirrigation services and use of water, andemphasis will be on quantities of water atthe field and irrigation service levels In thefuture phases, concepts and examples will

be presented from multiple uses of waterand water quality

Water Balance Approach

The water accounting methodology is based

on a water balance approach Water

bal-ances consider inflows and outflows from

basins, subbasins, and service and use

lev-els such as irrigation systems or fields An

initial step in performing a water balance is

to identify a domain of interest by

specify-ing spatial and temporal boundaries of the

domain For example, a domain could be an

irrigation system bounded by its headworks

and command area, and bounded in time

for a particular growing season

Conserva-tion of mass requires that for the domainover the time period of interest, inflows areequal to outflows plus any change of stor-age within the domain

In a purely physical sense, flows of ter are depicted by a water balance To de-velop and use water resources for their ownneeds, humans change the water balance.Water accounting considers components ofthe water balance and classifies them ac-cording to uses and productivity of theseuses

Conceptually, the water balance proach is straightforward Often though,many of the components of the water bal-ance are difficult to estimate or are notavailable For example, groundwater in-flows and outflows to and from an area ofinterest are difficult to measure Estimates

ap-of actual crop consumptive use at a regionalscale are questionable And drainage out-flows are often not measured, as more em-phasis has been placed on knowledge of in-flows to irrigation systems or municipalwater supply systems In spite of the limita-tions, experience has shown that even agross estimate of water balances for use inwater accounting can be quite useful tomanagers, farmers, and researchers Water

balance approaches have been successfullyused to study water use and productivity atthe basin level (for example, Owen-Joyceand Raymond 1996; and Hassan and Bhutta1996), at the irrigation service level (for ex-ample, Perry 1996b; Kijne 1996; and Helal et

al 1984), and at the field level (for example,Mishra et al 1995; Rathore et al 1996;Bhuyian et al 1995; and Tuong et al 1996).Binder et al (1997) use a regional balancetechnique quantifying municipal, industrial,and irrigation process uses to provide anearly recognition of changes in quantity andquality of water Often, first order estimatesprovide the basis for a more in-depth analy-sis that provides important clues on increas-ing water productivity

Water Accounting Definitions

The art of water accounting is to classifywater balance components into water usecategories that reflect the consequences ofhuman interventions in the hydrologiccycle Water accounting integrates waterbalance information with uses of water asvisualized in figure 1 Inflows into the do-main are classified into various use catego-ries as defined below

Gross inflow is the total amount of water

flowing into the domain from precipitationand surface and subsurface sources

Net inflow is the gross inflow plus any

changes in storage If water is removedfrom storage over the time period of inter-est, net inflow is greater than gross inflow;

if water is added to storage, net inflow isless than gross inflow Net inflow water iseither depleted, or flows out of the domain

of interest

Water depletion is a use or removal of water

from a water basin that renders it able for further use Water depletion is akey concept for water accounting, as it isoften the productivity and the derived ben-efits per unit of water depleted we are in-terested in It is extremely important to dis-tinguish water depletion from water di-verted to a service or use, because not allwater diverted to a use is depleted Water isdepleted by four generic processes, the firstthree described by Seckler (1996) and Kellerand Keller (1995) A fourth type of deple-tion occurs when water is incorporated into

unavail-a product

The four generic processes are:

• Evaporation: water is vaporized fromsurfaces or transpired by plants

• Flows to sinks: water flows into a sea,saline groundwater, or other location