chronic job burnout and daily functioning a theoretical analysis

Previous burnout researchhassuggested thatthe syndrome hasstructuralcausesintheworkenvironment,particularlyhigh ∗ Corresponding author at: Erasmus University Rotterdam, Department of Wor

j ou rn a l h o m e p a g e :w w w e l s e v i e r c o m / l o c a t e / b u r n

Research Article

Chronic job burnout and daily functioning: A theoretical analysis

Arnold B Bakkera,b,∗, Patrícia L Costac

Q1

a Erasmus University Rotterdam, Department of Work & Organizational Psychology, Woudestein, Room T13-47, P.O Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The

Q2

Netherlands

b Lingnan University, Department of Applied Psychology, Hong Kong, China

c ISCTE – University Institute of Lisbon, Office 2W8 (Building I), Av.adas Forc¸ as Armadas, 1649-026 Lisboa, Portugal

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 31 January 2014

Received in revised form 10 April 2014

Accepted 19 April 2014

Keywords:

Burnout

Diary research

Employee engagement

Interventions

Job crafting

Self-undermining

a b s t r a c t

Inthisarticle,wediscusstheindividualemployee’sroleinthedevelopmentofhis/herjobburnout.We reviewtheantecedentsandconsequencesofburnout,andproposeamodelwithchronicburnoutasa moderatorofdailyfunctioningintheworkplace.Specifically,wearguethatchronicburnoutstrengthens thelosscycleofdailyjobdemands,dailyexhaustion,anddailyself-undermining.Additionally,weargue thatchronicburnoutweakensthegaincycleofdailyjobresources,dailyworkengagement,anddaily jobcrafting.Weconcludethatemployeeswithhighlevelsofburnoutneedhelpinstructurallychanging theirworkingconditionsandhealthstatus

©2014TheAuthors.PublishedbyElsevierGmbH.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCC

BY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)

1 Introduction

Burnoutisarguablyoneof themostpopularresearchtopics

inoccupationalhealthpsychology,andthereisagoodreasonfor

this Researchhasconvincinglyshown that employeeswhoare

atriskofburnout(i.e.,whoarechronicallyexhaustedandholda

negative,cynicalattitudetowardwork)showimpairedjob

per-formanceandmayfaceserioushealthproblemsoverthecourse

of time(Bakker, Demerouti, &Sanz-Vergel,2014).Oneobvious

problemisthatonceemployeesexperiencehighlevelsofburnout,

theyoftencontinuetobeintrouble.Indeed,longitudinalresearch

suggeststhatburnoutcanberatherstable,overperiodsoffive,

ten,orevenfifteenyears(Bakker,Schaufeli,Sixma,Bosveld,&Van

Dierendonck,2000;Hakanen,Bakker,&Jokisaari,2011;Schaufeli,

Maassen,Bakker,&Sixma,2011).Howcanweexplainthatburnout

persistsforsolong?Wethinkthatburnouthasnotbeenadequately

explainedbecausemoststudiesdonotregardburnoutasan

ongo-ingprocessthatunfoldsovertime(seealso,TenBrummelhuis,Ter

Hoeven,Bakker,&Peper,2011)

Previous burnout researchhassuggested thatthe syndrome

hasstructuralcausesintheworkenvironment,particularlyhigh

∗ Corresponding author at: Erasmus University Rotterdam, Department of Work

& Organizational Psychology, Woudestein, Room T13-47, P.O Box 1738, 3000 DR

Rotterdam, The Netherlands Tel.: +31 10 408 8853.

Q3

E-mail addresses: bakker@fsw.eur.nl (A.B Bakker), patricia costa@iscte.pt

(P.L Costa).

jobdemands and lowjob resources(Alarcon, 2011;Demerouti, Bakker,Nachreiner,&Schaufeli,2001;Lee&Ashforth,1996).This researchalsoindicatesthatindividualfactorssuchasneuroticism and perfectionismplay a significantrole inthedevelopmentof burnout, becausethesecharacteristics predispose employeesto cope inthewrong way withtheirhighjobdemands (see also, Swider&Zimmerman,2010).Despiteallthisknowledge,westill knowlittle abouttherole theindividualemployeeplaysin the dailyprocessthatmayleadtoburnout.Doemployeesonlyreact passivelytotheworkenvironmentordotheyactivelyinfluence it?

Thecentralaimofthisarticleistoanalyzetheburnout phe-nomenonfromtheperspectiveoftheburned-outworker.Wewant

tocapturetheprocessleadingtoburnout,andexplainwhyburnout persistsfor sucha longtime.Howdo thosewithhighlevelsof burnoutfunctionintheworkplaceonaday-to-daybasis?Doesthe problemprogressfrombadtoworse?Thispaperaimstocontribute

totheliteraturein twoimportantways First,wechallengethe ratherstaticviewofburnoutthatdominatestheliterature, suggest-ingthatburnoutisasimpleresponsetotheworkingenvironment

Wepresentamoredynamicmodelthatelucidateshowburnout progressesovertime.Second,weemphasizetheroleofthe indi-vidualemployeeintheburnoutprocess.Whatcanemployeesdo themselvestobreakthroughthelossspiralofburnout?We intro-ducetheconceptsofself-underminingandjobcraftingasbehaviors thatmayhelptounderstandhowburnoutoftenpersistsandleads

tomorejobdemands andless jobresourcesover thecourseof time

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.burn.2014.04.003

2213-0586/© 2014 The Authors Published by Elsevier GmbH This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ ).

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2 Burnout

Burnoutis a syndromecharacterizedbychronic exhaustion,

cynicism,and a lack of personal accomplishment It is usually

definedas“ astateofexhaustioninwhichoneiscynicalabout

thevalueofone’soccupation and doubtfulof one’scapacityto

perform” (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996, p 20) Emotional

exhaustionisthecentralstraindimensionofburnout,described

asfeelingsofbeingemotionallydrainedbyone’swork.Cynicism

isanegativeorexcessivelydetachedresponsetotheworkitself

and/ortotheindividuals withwhomemployees’interactwhile

performing their job Finally, lack of personal accomplishment

refersto a decline in one’sfeelings of competenceand of

suc-cessfulachievementatwork(Maslach,Schaufeli,&Leiter,2001;

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activi-ties

a nationally representative sample of more than 3000 Finnish

workers,Ahola(2007)reportedanincreasedprevalenceof

depres-sive and anxiety disorders and of alcohol dependence among

burned-outemployees.Similarly,intheirthree-wave,seven-year

prospectivestudyof2000dentists,HakanenandSchaufeli(2012)

foundapositive relationshipbetweenburnoutontheonehand

anddepressivesymptomsandlifedissatisfactionontheother.In

whatphysicalhealthisconcerned,Kim,Ji,andKao(2011)showed

thatsocialworkerswithhigherinitiallevelsofburnoutreported

morephysicalhealthcomplaintsoverthecourseoftheirthree-year

study,includingsleepdisturbances,headaches,respiratory

infec-tions,andgastrointestinalinfections.Higherlevelsofburnoutled

toafaster rateofdeterioration inphysical health.Theburnout

syndromehas also been foundto be an independent risk

fac-torforinfections (e.g.,commoncold;Mohren etal.,2003), and

type2diabetes(Melamed,Shirom,Toker,&Shapira,2006)

More-over,burnoutis ariskfactor forcardiovasculardiseases(Ahola,

2007).Aten-yearprospectivestudybyAhola,Väänänen,Koskinen,

Kouvonen, and Shirom (2010) concluded, “burnout, especially

work-relatedexhaustion, maybea risk foroverall survival”(p

1)

Consequently,burned-outemployeesarelikelytodisplayone

ormorewithdrawal behaviors(Hanisch,1995)suchaslateness,

absence,orturnover(Maslachetal.,2001).Clinicallyburned-out

employeesmaygetjustifiedabsenceleavesfromwork.However,

otherburned-outemployees remainat work, which leadsto a

formof presenteeism.Presenteeismoccurswhen individualsgo

toworkwhentheyshouldinsteadbeoffsick,eitherbecausethey

are ill or becausethey are no longer effective (Cooper, 1996)

Individualperformanceiscompromisedbecauseburned-out

work-ersneedtoinvestextratimeandeffortinperformingtheirjob

Additionally,collectiveperformance maysufferbecausehealthy

employees spend time in helping theirsick colleagues,at risk

ofalso damagingtheirown health (Roe, 2003).Moreover,

pre-senteeismititselfariskfactorforburnout.Demerouti,LeBlanc,

Bakker,SchaufeliandHox(2009),inathree-wavestudyamong

staffnursesworkingingeneralhospitals,foundreciprocal

relation-shipsbetweenburnout,jobdemands,andpresenteeism.Burnout

(exhaustionanddepersonalization)predictedmorejobdemands

andpresenteeism;presenteeism,inturn,predictedhigherlevels

ofburnout.Inconclusion,employeeswhoareburned-outbytheir

work,experiencemorepsychologicaland physicalhealth

prob-lems,andthis influencestheirbehavioratworkinasignificant

way

Personal resources

Job resources

Work engagement

Exhaustion Job

demands

Job performance

Job crafting

Job crafting

+

+

+

+ +

+ +

-+

-Fig 1.The Job Demands–Resources model ( Bakker & Demerouti, 2014 ).

2.1 Causesofburnout Thecausesofburnoutaregenerallydividedintwocategories: situationalfactorsandindividualfactors(Bakkeretal.,2014) Situ-ationalfactorsinclude jobdemandsand (lackof)jobresources Jobdemandsareaspectsofthejobthatrequiresustainedeffort (Demeroutiet al.,2001).Therefore, jobdemands areassociated withphysiologicalandpsychologicalcosts,suchasanincreased heart rateand fatigue.Such symptomsmay settheground for theexperienceofburnout,becausejobdemandsleademployees

tofeelexhaustedandtopsychologicallydistancethemselvesfrom work(Bakkeretal.,2000).Roleambiguity,roleconflict,rolestress, stressfulevents,workload,andworkpressureareamongthemost importantjobdemandsthatcauseburnout(Alarcon,2011;Lee& Ashforth,1996)

Jobresourcesarethephysical,psychological,social,or organi-zationalaspectsofthejobthatfacilitatetheachievementofwork goals, reduce job demands and its costs, or stimulate personal growththroughmeaningfulwork(Bakker&Demerouti,2007).The relationshipbetween jobresources and burnout is consistently negative,wherelowerlevelsofjobresourcesareassociatedwith higherlevelsofburnout,especiallyinwhatcynicismisconcerned (Demeroutietal.,2001).Moreover,JobDemands–Resources the-ory(Bakker&Demerouti,2007,2014;Demerouti&Bakker,2011) proposesthatjobresourcesplayabufferingroleintherelationship betweenjobdemandsandburnout(seeFig.1).Bakker,Demerouti, and Euwema (2005) found that when employees experienced autonomy,receivedfeedback,hadsocialsupport,orhada high-qualityrelationshipwiththeirsupervisor,beingsubjecttowork overload,emotionaldemands,physicaldemands,andwork–home interferencedidnotresultinhighlevelsofburnout.Thus,burnout

ismorelikelytodevelopwhenhighjobdemandsarecombined withlowjobresources

Inwhatindividualfactorsareconcerned,bothsocioeconomic statusandpersonalityvariableshavebeenanalyzedascreatinga predispositiontosufferfromburnoutsymptoms.Hakanenetal.’s (2011)cohortstudyamongFinnishemployeesfoundthat socioeco-nomicstatusandcognitiveabilityinadolescencewereassociated withjobburnout35yearslater,throughadulteducationandskill variety.Personalityinfluencesthewaypeopleperceivetheirwork environment,andthereforehowtheydealwithjobdemandsand resources.Strain may arise, for example, when thework envi-ronment is not aligned with individual personality, leading to frustrationofindividualneeds.Forexample,whenanintroverted technicianbecomesaleader,hewillneedtoenactbehaviorshe

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ofco-workers.Thismisfitbetweenpersonalityandjobdemands

mayresultinseriousstressreactions,particularlywhen

employ-eesareoftenexposedtodemandsthatdonotfitwiththeirskills

andpreferences.Alarcon,Eschleman,and Bowling(2009)found

thatfouroftheBigFive factorsofpersonality(Costa&McCrae,

1985)–emotionalstability,extraversion,conscientiousness,and

agreeableness –wereconsistently negatively relatedtoeach of

thethreedimensionsofburnout.Further,individualshighin

self-efficacy,optimism,andself-esteemwerebetterabletodealwith

jobdemands–mostlikelybecausetheybelievetheyhave

con-trolovertheirworkenvironment,and,therefore,aremorelikely

toproactivelysolveproblemsandseekresourceswhenfacingjob

demands

Itshouldbenotedthatthesesituationalandindividualfactors

arerelativelystableand likely topersistover extendedperiods

oftime.Thismeansthatiftheworkenvironmentissuboptimal,

orwhenemployeeshaveapersonalitythatdoesnotfitwiththe

worksituation,eventually,chronicjobburnoutisapossiblerisk

However,researchsuggeststhatlevelsofwell-beingandjob

per-formancemayalsofluctuatewithinshortertimeperiods,namely

fromweektoweek, andeven fromday today(Xanthopoulou,

Bakker,&Ilies,2012).Howdosuchshort-termfluctuationsin

well-beingrelatetochroniclevelsofburnout?Areemployeeswithhigh

levelsofchronicburnout tiredduringeveryday? Whatarethe

possiblecausesofupsanddownsindailywell-being?Can

burned-outindividualschangetheirownworksituation?Wewillanswer

thesequestionsbelow However,wewillfirstexaminethelink

betweenburnoutandjobperformance,becausethisliterature

pro-videsimportantinformationabouttheworkbehaviorofemployees

highinburnout

2.2 Jobperformance

Researchhasindicatedthatburnoutisnegativelyrelatedto

per-formance.In alargemeta-analyticstudyincludingnolessthan

115differentstudies,SwiderandZimmerman(2010)foundthe

threedimensionsofjobburnouthadmultiplecorrelationsof.23

with absenteeism,.33 with turnover, and 36 with job

perfor-mance.Apreviousmeta-analysisbyTaris(2006)investigatedthe

relationshipbetweenburnoutand other-ratingsofperformance

(e.g.,supervisorreports).Heidentifiedsixteenstudiesdealingwith

theburnout–performancerelationship,showingawidevarietyof

approachesthatareusedtostudyburnoutandobjective

perfor-mance.Themeta-analyticalcorrelationsbetweenexhaustionand

in-rolebehavior(basedonfivestudies),organizationalcitizenship

behavior (fivestudies), and customer satisfaction (two studies)

were−22,−19,and−55,respectively.Theevidenceforthe

relation-shipsbetweendepersonalization,personalaccomplishment,and

performancewasinconclusive

Onepossibleexplanationforthenegativelinkbetweenburnout

andperformanceisthatexhaustedemployeeslackthe

concentra-tionneededtoperformwell,andthereforemakemoremistakes

Additionally, the negative emotions that are characteristic of

burnoutnarrowthebreadthofthoughtprocessing(Fredrickson,

2001),diminishthefocusonneworglobalinformation(Derryberry

& Tucker, 1994), and impair the quality of decision-making

Individualswho experiencenegativeemotional states and who

arepsychologicallydetachedfromworkalsodemonstratefewer

approachbehaviorstowardothers(Cacioppo,Gardner,&Berntson,

1999),andmorecounterproductiveworkbehaviorssuchas

steal-ing,withholdingeffortandinformation,andtakinglongerbreaks

(Penney&Spector,2008).Furthermore,burned-outemployeesare

lesswillingtohelpothers(Swider&Zimmerman,2010),andless

likelytoreceivehelpfromothers,whichmayresultinproductivity

losses(Bakkeretal.,2014)

Burnout is not only negatively related to performance, but alsopositivelyrelatedtosicknessabsenteeism.Schaufeli,Bakker, and Van Rhenen (2009) showed that burnout predicted future absencedurationbutnotabsencefrequencyoverthecourseofone year.Toppinen-Tanner,Ojajärvi,Väänänen,Kalimo,andJäppinen (2005)foundthatburnout increasedtheriskofmedically certi-fiedabsencesepisodesthatwerelongerthanthreedays.Similarly, Borritz, Rugulies, Christensen, Villadsen, and Kristensen(2006) foundthat an increase of burnout waspositively related toan increaseinsicknessabsencedaysperyear.Petersonetal.(2011) foundthattheexhaustiondimensionofburnoutpredicted long-termsickness (90daysor more)atanyoccasion duringthe44 monthsoffollow-upinastudyamongmorethan6000employees workinginaCountyCouncilareainSweden

Oneproblemthatisevidentfromtheliterature–andthat fol-lowslogicallyfromtheobservationthatburnout coincideswith impaired job performance – is that burnout predicts increased jobdemandsovertime(Bakker&Demerouti,2014).Forexample, Demerouti,Bakker,and Bulters(2004)performeda longitudinal studywithasampleof335employeesandfoundthatwork pres-sureandexhaustionhadcausalandreversedcausalrelationships overtime.Hence,notonlydidworkpressurepredictexhaustion; feelingexhaustedalsopredictedsubsequentlevelsofwork pres-sureinareciprocalrelationship(seealso,TenBrummelhuisetal., 2011).Thereason forthis reciprocal relationshipis mostlikely thatexhaustedemployeesneedmoretime tofinishtheirtasks, makemoremistakes,andarelessabletomobilizetheirresources Thismeansthatjobdemandsaccumulateovertime–causingeven higherlevelsofburnout

3 Chronic burnout and daily functioning

Our review sofarindicatesthatemployees withhighlevels

ofburnout (exhaustion,cynicism,andreduced personal accom-plishment)aremostlikelytobefoundinworkingenvironments withhighjobdemandsandlowjobresources.Overthecourseof time,employees’experienceoffatiguemaytransformintochronic exhaustionandhealthproblemswhenthedemandsoftheirjob becomeoverwhelming,andwhenjobresourcesareconsistently lacking.Employeeswithburnoutalsodonotmanagetofunction

attheexpectedperformance level.Howdoestheexperienceof chronicburnoutaffectdailyexperiencesatwork,andhowdoesit affectemployees’workbehavior?Additionally,whatistheimpact

ofdailyworkactivitiesonthewell-beingofburned-out employ-ees?

Unfortunatelyandparadoxically,mostresearchontheconcept

ofburnouthasstudiedemployeeswithonlymildsignsofburnout, and ignoredthegroupof employeesthat isat riskfor burnout

orthatprogressedintoclinicalburnout.Somedescriptivestudies investigatedburnoutamongemployeeswhoreceivedprofessional treatment(Schaufeli,Bakker,Hoogduin,Schaap,&Kladler,2001; Sonnenschein,Sorbi,VanDoornen,Schaufeli,&Maas,2007),butthe vastmajorityofstudieshavetreatedthefocalvariable(burnout)as

acontinuousvariable.Suchastrategyisnotunusualinthefieldof appliedpsychology,andthisapproachhasresultedinawealthof knowledgeregardingthepredictorsofburnout.However,the ana-lyticalproblemisthatburnoutmayparticularlyhaveanadverse impactonfunctioningatworkwhenemployeesexperiencehigh levelsofexhaustionandcynicism.Indeed,recentresearchsuggests thatemployeeswithonlymildsymptomsofburnoutusearangeof strategies(e.g.,selection,optimization,compensation;Demerouti, Bakker,&Leiter,2014)tokeeptheirjobperformanceatacceptable levels.However,whathappensonceemployeeshavereachedhigh levelsofburnoutasaconsequenceofprolongedexposuretohigh jobdemandsandlowjobresources?

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CHRONIC BURNOUT

Daily Self-undermining

Daily Job demands

Daily Exhaustion

Daily Engagement

Daily Job resources

Daily

`Job crafting

Fig 2. Chronic burnout: a loss cycle of daily job demands and a lost gain cycle of daily job resources.

Webelieveitistimethatourfieldmovesforwardand

investi-gateshowpeoplewithhigher(vs.lower)levelsof(chronic)burnout

–butwho arestillatwork–functiononadailybasis Weuse

thetwocentralprocessesintheJobDemands–Resources(JD–R)

model(Bakker &Demerouti, 2014; Demeroutiet al., 2001; see

Fig 1) to explain how employeeswith high levels of burnout

maygettrappedin a losscycleof highdailyjob demands and

highdailyexhaustion,anddonotmanagetomobilizetheirdaily

jobresources.However,whereaspreviousresearchwiththeJD–R

modelhasgenerally usedeitherabetween-personor a

within-personapproach,wedistinguishbetweentwolevelsofanalysis,

namelytheleveloftheperson(chronicburnoutlevel),andtheday

level(dailyfunctioning;seeFig.2)

3.1 Dailyjobdemandsandself-undermining

Animportantstartingpointistoacknowledgethatindividuals

withhighlevelsofburnoutcopedifferentlywiththeirdailyjob

demandsthanthoselowinburnout,whichmayexacerbatetheir

problems.Morespecifically,ascanbeseeninFig.2,wepropose

thatdailyjobdemandstranslateintodailyexhaustion(cf.Simbula,

2010),particularlyforhigh-burnoutemployees.Thereasonforthis

isthatthelowlevelofdailyenergythatisapparentin

employ-eeswithchronicburnout(Sonnenscheinetal.,2007)makesthem

unfittodealadequatelywiththedailyjobdemands.Thesedaily

jobdemands,forexample,complexproblemsthatmustbesolved,

orademandingcustomerthatneedsalotofattention,willthen

costsadditionaleffort,resultinginahighlevelofdailyexhaustion

Ifindividualshighinburnoutareoftenconfrontedwithhighdaily

jobdemands,theymayendupinalosscycle(Hobfoll,2002)in

whichmostenergyresourcesaredepletedandemployeesbecomes

sick

In his conservation of resources theory, Hobfoll (2002) has

referred to “loss spirals” and suggested that people who lack

resourcesaresusceptibletolosingevenmoreresources

Accord-ingtoHobfoll’sconservationofresourcestheory,individualsstrive

to obtain things they value These are called “resources” and

includeobjects,conditions,personalcharacteristicsandenergies

Resourcesareentitiesthat“ eitherarecentrallyvaluedintheir

ownright,oractasmeanstoobtaincentrallyvaluedends”(Hobfoll,

2002,p.307).Peoplestrivetoprotectthemselvesfromresource loss,whichmakeslossmoresalientthangain.However,resources arerelated toeach otherin a “weblike” nature,which further suggeststhatresourcelossandgainoccursinspirals.Lossspirals willfollowinitiallosses,witheachlossresultingindepletionof resourcesforconfrontingthenextthreatorloss(Hobfoll,2002) Besides,resourcelossalsopreventstheswitchingofthesituation intogaincycles.Burnoutisaclassiccase,wherebytheemployees’ personalandjobresourcesarebeingprogressivelyeroded lead-ingto increasedenergy depletionand furtherdiminishment of resources.Demeroutietal.(2004)foundevidenceforsuchaloss spiralinwhich workpressureevoked work–familyconflictand exhaustion.Thesefeelingsofchronicfatigue,consequently,gave risetomoreworkpressureandwork–familyconflictovertime

Indeed,thereisconsiderableevidencesuggestingthat employ-eesatriskfor burnoutcreatemorejobdemandsovertime We havebrieflymentioned somelongitudinalstudiesthatprovided evidenceforthiscontention(Demeroutietal.,2004;Schaufelietal., 2009;Ten Brummelhuisetal., 2011), but thesestudiesdidnot explainhowandwhyburnoutispositivelyrelatedtojobdemands overtime.AscanbeseeninFig.2,weproposethatemployeeswith higherlevelsofdailyexhaustionshowself-undermining behav-ior.Our conceptofself-underminingisbasedon–butdifferent from–thephenomenonofself-handicapping.Self-handicappingis definedasaself-defendingmaneuverreferringtoobstaclescreated,

orclaimed,bytheindividualinanticipationoffailingperformance (Jones &Berglas, 1978).In the present theoretical analysis,we usetheterm‘self-undermining’forbehaviorthat creates obsta-clesthatmayundermineperformance.Wearguethatemployees withhigherlevelsofdailyexhaustionwillmakemoremistakes, whichthenneedtobecorrectedagain,addingtothealreadyhigh jobdemands.Thus,weexpandJD–Rtheory(seeFig.1 by argu-ingthatexhaustedemployeesshowself-underminingbehaviors,

onadailybasis.Additionally,wearguethatchronically burned-outemployeesarelessabletomanagetheirownemotions,and morelikelytoencounterconflictsatwork.Theseself-undermining dailybehaviors allcontributetohigher daily jobdemands (see Fig.2)

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Research hasprovided ample evidencefor self-undermining

asaresultofexhaustion.Forexample,VanderLinden,Keijsers,

Eling,andVanSchaijk(2005)comparedthreegroups:(a)agroup

of burned-out individuals who stopped working due to their

symptomsand soughtprofessional treatment;(b) teachersat a

vocationaltraininginstitutewhoreportedhighlevelsofburnout

symptomsbutcontinuedtowork;and(c)teachersfromthesame

institutewhoreportednoburnoutsymptoms.Theresultsshowed

that burnoutwas positivelyrelated tothenumber of cognitive

failures in daily life, and to inhibition errors and performance

variabilityinattentionaltaskscarriedoutinthelaboratory.Thus,

burned-outindividualsmademoremistakes.Similarly,intheir

lon-gitudinalfieldstudyamongfinancialconsultants,TenBrummelhuis

etal.(2011)foundalosscycleofburnoutthroughadecreasein

jobresourcesandanincreaseinjobdemands.Resourcelosswas

mostlikelyforburned-outconsultantswhowerelowinintrinsic

motivation

Further,Sonnenscheinetal.(2007)asked60clinically

burned-outparticipantsand40healthycontrolstorecordsymptomswith

anelectronicdiaryfortwoweeksatrandomtimesperday.Their

findingsindicated thatclinically burned-outindividualsdidnot

recoverasmuchthroughsleepashealthyindividualsdid,because

burned-outindividuals experiencedallkindsofsleepproblems,

particularlytroublefallingasleepandnonrefreshingsleep.Thisis

onereasonwhyburned-outindividualsshowconsistenthighlevels

ofdailyexhaustion.Thus,burned-outindividualsseemto

under-minetheirowndailyfunctioningbecausetheydonotsleepvery

well

Inanotherdiarystudy,VanGelderen,Konijn,andBakker(2014)

showedthatpoliceofficerswithhighlevelsofstrainatthestartof

theirworkshiftweremorelikelytousesuboptimalemotional

regu-lationstrategies(i.e.,‘surfaceacting’insteadof‘deepacting’)during

theworkingdayininteractionswithcivilians/suspects.Daily

sur-faceacting,inturn,resultedinimpairedperformanceandhigher

dailystrainattheendoftheworkshift.Policeofficerswhofake

theiremotionsduringinteractionswithciviliansareperceivedas

lessauthenticbythesecivilians,andarethereforemorelikelyto

exacerbatetheproblemstheyaimtosolve(VanGelderen,Konijn,

&Bakker,2011).Hence,this isonemoreexamplewherehigher

levelsofstrainseemtoevokeself-underminingbehaviors

Itshouldbenotedthatjobdemandsmightalsobeaffectedby

employees’perceptionsofthesedemands(Zapf,Dormann,&Frese,

1996).Justlikethetendencyofdepressedpeopletoassesstheir

environmentmorenegativelyandthuscontributingtoamore

neg-ativeclimate(Demeroutietal.,2004),burned-outemployeesmay

perceiverelativelyhighjob demands and complain moreoften

abouttheirworkloadcreatinganegativeworkclimate

(González-Morales,Peiró,Rodríguez,&Bliese,2012).Finally,itisconceivable

thatnotonlydemandsincrease,butthatjobresourcesalsodecrease

withincreasinglevelsofburnout.AsindicatedinFig.2,employees

whoscorehigheronburnoutmayalsobelesslikelytomobilize

theirjobresources.Indeed,Schaufelietal.(2009)foundthat

man-agerswhoscoredhigheronT1burnoutwerelesslikelytoreceive

performancefeedbackinthefollowingyear;andTenBrummelhuis

etal.(2011)foundthatemployeeswhoscoredhigheronT1burnout

werelesslikelytoreceiveco-workerandsupervisorsupport;to

experiencejobautonomy;toparticipateindecision-making;and

tohaveaccesstoinformationinthefollowingtwoyears

3.2 Dailyjobresourcesandjobcrafting

Employeeswith highlevelsof chronicburnout arenot only

morelikelytoendupinalosscycleofdailyjobdemands,

exhaus-tion,andself-undermining.Theyaresimultaneouslyalsolesslikely

to profit from a gain cycle of daily job resources, daily work

engagement,and daily job crafting (see Fig 2).In job crafting,

employeesindependentlymodifyaspectsoftheirjobstoimprove thefitbetweenthecharacteristicsofthejobandtheirown abili-ties,needs,andpreferences(Berg,Dutton,&Wrzesniewski,2010) AccordingtoWrzesniewski and Dutton(2001),employees may craft thetasks theymust fulfillat work,theinterpersonal rela-tionshipstheyexperiencewhenperformingtheirwork,orthey may positively reframe the way they think about their work Buildingontheseideas,Tims,Bakker andDerks(2013)showed thatemployeeswhocrafttheirownjobdemandsandresources increasetheirlevelsofworkengagementandreducetheriskof burnout

Unfortunately,burned-outemployeesseemlesslikelytoprofit from thegain cycle of daily job resources,daily work engage-ment,anddailyjobcraftingputforwardbyJD–Rtheory(Bakker& Demerouti,2014;seeFigs.1and2).Thisisparticularlyproblematic becausedailyjobresourcessuchasperformancefeedback, train-ing,andsocialsupportareneededtocopewithdailyjobdemands Additionally,giventhatjobresourceshavemotivationalpotential (Hackman&Oldham,1980),notbeingabletoprofitfromdailyjob resourcesmeanslowlevelsofworkengagementonadailybasis Onceengaged, employeesaremore likely tomobilizetheirjob resourcesinordertostayengaged(Bakker,2011).Employeeswith chronicburnoutmisstheenergyandmotivationtostartsuchjob craftingbehavior.Thus,individualshighinburnoutmiss opportu-nitiestoprofitfromagaincycle(Hobfoll,2002)inwhichresources accumulateovertime(Hakanen,Perhoniemi,&Toppinen-Tanner, 2008)

Gainspiralsaretechnicallydefinedasamplifyingloopsinwhich cyclicrelationshipsamong constructsbuildoneachother posi-tivelyovertime(Lindsley,Brass,&Thomas,1995).Accordingto conservationofresourcestheory(Hobfoll,2002),theacquisition andaccumulationofresourcesisapivotaldrivethatinitiatesand maintainspeople’sbehavior.Accordingly,peoplearemotivatedto obtain,retain,fosterandprotectresources.Researchintherealmof organizationshasprovidedevidencefortheexistenceofgaincycles (notspirals)ofjobresourcesandengagement:jobresources pre-dictpersonalresourcesandworkengagement;personalresources andworkengagement,inturn,predictjobresourcesovertime(see Bakker&Demerouti,2014;Salanova,Schaufeli,Xanthopoulou,& Bakker,2010)

Furthermore, researchhas provided evidence for a negative relationshipbetweenburnoutandjobresources(seeFig.2 most probablybecauseofthewithdrawalbehaviorthatis characteris-ticofindividualshighinburnout.TenBrummelhuisetal.(2011) foundinatwo-yearfollowupstudythatbaselineburnoutpredicted futureburnoutdirectlyandindirectly,throughanincreaseinjob demandsandadecreaseinjobresources.Regardingjobresources, theauthorsfoundthatburnoutresultedinadecreaseinco-worker andsupervisorsupport,areductionofjobautonomyand informa-tion,andlessparticipationindecision-making.Inasimilarvein,

DeBeer,Pienaar,andRothmannJr.(2013)conductedaone-year follow-upstudyintheminingsectorandfoundthatT1burnout wasnegatively relatedtoT2 socialsupportfromcolleagues,T2 socialsupportfromsupervisors,andmarginallysignificantly, neg-ativelyrelatedtoT2role clarity,alsosuggestingthatemployees withhigherlevelsofburnoutarelesslikelytohaveaccesstojob resources

Jobresourcessuchassocialsupport,performancefeedback,and opportunitiesfordevelopmentaremotivatingbecausetheyhelp

todealwithjobdemandsandreachwork-relatedgoals(Bakker

&Demerouti, 2014) Employees highin burnout are less likely

toprofitfromsuchjobresourcesbecausetheyarelessopento newexperiences (Bakker,Van der Zee,Lewig,& Dollard,2006; Sandströmetal.,2011).Inaddition,burned-outemployeesmaybe lessabletofocusonavarietyoftasksbecauseoftheirhealth prob-lems, includinganxiety,depression, sleep disturbance, memory

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before,burned-outemployeesarelesslikelytoproactivelychange

theirownworkenvironment.Indeed,Tims,Bakker,&Derks,2012

foundthatburnoutwasnegativelyrelatedtoproactivebehavior

atwork.In addition,employeeswhoscoredhigheroncynicism

werelesslikelytocrafttheirsocialandstructuraljobresourcesor

tocrafttheirchallengesatwork.Incontrast,engagedemployees

weremorelikelytoincreasetheirchallenges,and,forexample,to

seeksocialsupportandaskforfeedback.Thispositivelinkbetween

engagementandjobcraftinghasalsobeenfoundonadailybasis

(Demerouti&Bakker,2014;Petrou,Demerouti,Peeters,Schaufeli,

&Hetland,2012).Dailyjobcraftingcan,inturn,havea positive

impactondailyjobresources(seeFig.2)

Finally,burned-outindividualsseemtofailtosatisfytheirbasic

psychologicalneeds.Accordingtoself-determinationtheory,

peo-plehavethreeinnatepsychologicalneeds,namelytheneedsfor

autonomy,competence,andrelatedness(Deci&Ryan,2000).The

needforautonomyimpliesthatpeoplehaveauniversalurgetobe

causalagentsandtoexperiencevolition;theneedforcompetence

concernspeople’sinherentdesiretobeeffectiveindealingwith

theenvironment;andtheneedforrelatednessimpliestheuniversal

propensitytointeractwith,beconnectedto,andexperiencecaring

forotherpeople(Baumeister&Leary,1995).Researchofthepast

decadeshasshownthatsatisfactionofthesethreeneedsfosters

well-beingandperformance,whereasfrustrationoftheneeds

fos-tersjobstrainandimpairedperformance(Gagne&Vansteenkiste,

2013).Inastudentsetting,fulfillmentoftheneedsforautonomy,

competenceandrelatednesswasrelatedtowell-beingona

day-to-daybasis(Reis,Sheldon,Gable,Roscoe,&Ryan,2000).Inarecent

studyinanorganizationalsetting,BakkerandOerlemans(2014)

foundthatthemoretimeburned-out(vs.healthy)individualsspent

onwork-related activities(e.g.,corework tasks,administrative

tasks,meetingswithclients,andinteractionswithcolleagues),the

lowertheirmomentaryneedsatisfaction,andthelowertheirdaily

happiness.Becauseburned-outemployeesseemunabletosatisfy

theirdailybasicneedsforrelatedness,autonomyandcompetence

throughwork,itislikelythattheirdailyworkengagementislow

aswell

4 Practical implications

Wehavearguedthatchronicburnouthasadetrimentaleffect

on employees’ daily functioning, because burnout strengthens

thelosscycleofdailydemands,dailyexhaustion,anddaily

self-undermining.Inaddition,burnoutunderminesthegaincycleof

dailyjobresources,dailyworkengagement,anddailyjobcrafting

Therefore,chronicallyburned-outemployeesorthoseatriskfor

burnoutneedhelpfromothersinordertochangethestructural

causesthatcontributetotheirimpairedhealthstatusandwork

capacity.Organizations(e.g.,occupationalhealthprofessionalsor

humanresourcemanagers)shouldplayacentralroleinthe

preven-tionandreductionofburnout,simultaneouslypayingattentionto

theorganizationalcontextandthepersonalneedsoftheindividual

employee(Kompier,Cooper,&Geurts,2000).Managementshould

developpoliciestooptimizestructuraljobdemandsandresources

–particularlyforthosewhoareatriskforburnout.Discussingthe

workingconditionswithindividualemployees,afteranassessment

ofpersonaljobdemandsandresources,isonepossible

interven-tion.Togetherwiththeemployee,leadersmayidentifyandtryto

reducehindrancejobdemands,suchasroleambiguityorrole

con-flict(Crawford,LePine, &Rich,2010).Simultaneously,theymay

trytoidentifyanddevelopjobresourcesthatfosterwork

engage-mentandhelpcopingwiththejobdemands.Leaderscanalsobe

trainedtobettersupervisetheiremployees,bylearninghowto

offeradequate,constructivefeedbackandhowtoestablishclear

goalsfortheiremployees.Thisisnotaneasypursuit,butresearch suggeststhatstructuralburnoutinterventionscanhavefavorable effects(Leiter&Maslach,2014)

Additionally, recentresearchsuggests thatjob craftingis an important‘bottom-up’approachthatcanbeusedtotrain employ-eestooptimizetheirownworkenvironmentthemselves,sothat theystayengaged(VandenHeuvel,Demerouti,&Peeters,2012)

Inthetraining,employeeswhoareatriskforburnoutmaylearn

toidentifythedemandsandresourcesintheirworkenvironment Consequently,theylearntheprinciplesofjobcrafting,andmake theirpersonaljobcraftingplan.Thisplanincludesgoalsetting,such

asseekingspecificjobresources(e.g.,askingforfeedbackandsocial support),andreducingworkpressureandroleconflicts(Demerouti

&Bakker,2014).Jobcraftingshould,ofcourse,notbecomean addi-tionaldemandthat needstobedealtwith, becausethat would increasedailyexhaustion.Managerswhohelpemployeesatrisk forburnoutallocatetimetojobcrafting.Futureresearchshould testwhetherjobcraftingcanreallyworkforemployeeswhoare highonchronicburnout

Thepresenttheoreticalanalysisclearlyindicatesthatemployee well-beingandworkbehaviorfluctuatesonadailybasis Employ-eesmayeithercrafttheirdailyworkenvironmentandmobilize theirjobresources,orrunintotroublebecauseoftheirhighlevelof exhaustion,creatinghigherjobdemandsthroughaprocessof self-undermining.Dailyinterventionsmayinterrupttheselosscycles First,inourprojects,weprovidefeedbacktoourparticipantsabout theirdailyactivitiesanddailyexperiences(e.g.,Breevaartetal., 2014).Onthebasisof thisfeedback,employees(highor lowin burnout)learnwhatthepossibledailycausesareoftheirfatigue Thisinformationcanbeusedasastartingpointforbehaviorchange Anotheroptionistheuseofsmartphoneapplicationsthatofferthe possibilitytomonitorthedailyfluctuationsinengagement,and offerfeedbacktotheusersregardingthepossiblecausesofthe peaksandlowsinengagementfromdaytoday,orevenwithin theday Additionally, researchhasindicated that recovery is a crucialstrategy.Recoveryactivities,suchassocialactivities(e.g., havingdinnerwithfriends),low-effortactivities(reading,listening

tomusic,surfingontheinternet),andphysicalactivities(e.g.,sport, exercise,dancing)mayfosterrelaxationandpsychological detach-mentfromwork,whichmay,inturn,facilitatenextday’swork engagement(see,alsoregardingmethodology;Bakker,Demerouti, Oerlemans,&Sonnentag,2013;TenBrummelhuis&Bakker,2012) Employeesmayalsolearnhowtobettercopewiththeirexhaustion

bymasteringtheactivitiesthataremosthelpfulforrecoveryfrom theirwork-relatedefforts(Hahn,Binnewies,Sonnentag,&Mojza, 2011),includingtheactivitiesmentionedabove

5 Conclusion

Burnoutisacombinationofchronicexhaustionandnegative attitudestowardworkwithdamagingconsequencesforemployee health and productivity In this article,we developed an over-allmodelofburnoutin whichchronicburnoutisconsideredas

animportantmoderatorofdailyemployeefunctioning.Wehave arguedandshownthatchronicburnoutstrengthensthelosscycle

ofdailyjobdemands,dailyexhaustion,anddailyself-undermining, whereas chronic burnout weakens the gain cycle of daily job resources,dailyworkengagement,anddailyjobcrafting.Future researchshouldtestthesepropositionsincross-levelresearch,in whichemployeeshighinchronicburnoutarecomparedwiththose lowinburnoutregardingtheirmanagementofdailyjobdemands andresources.Employeeswithhighlevelsofburnoutneedhelpin structurallychangingtheirworkingconditionsandhealthstatus, andwehopethatthepresentarticleoffersaframeworkwithwhich thiscanbeachieved

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Conflict of interest

Theauthorsdeclarethattherearenoconflictsofinterest

Uncited references

Q5

Bakker, Oerlemans, and Ten Brummelhuis (2013), Bakker,

Albrecht, and Leiter (2011), Dollard and Bakker (2010) and

Melamedetal.(2003)

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