Human Resources Development Review 2003 docx

i i HRD REVIEW l 2003© 2003 Human Sciences Research Council Compiled by the Research Programme on Human Resources Development, Human Sciences Research Council General Editors: Andre Kraa

HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW

i i HRD REVIEW l 2003

© 2003 Human Sciences Research Council

Compiled by the Research Programme on Human Resources Development, Human Sciences Research Council

General Editors: Andre Kraak and Helene Perold

Published by HSRC Press Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za

Published in the United States of America by Michigan State University Press

East Lansing, Michigan 48823-5202

Distributed in Africa by Blue Weaver Marketing and Distribution,

PO Box 30370, Tokai, Cape Town, 7966, South Africa.

Tel: +27 +21-701-4477 Fax: +27 +21-701-7302 e-mail: booksales@hsrc.ac.za

First published 2003

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

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Printed in the Republic of South Africa

Recommended citation:

Human Sciences Research Council (2003) Human Resources Development Review 2003: Education, Employment

and Skills in South Africa, Cape Town: HSRC Press and East Lansing: Michigan State University Press

INTRODUCTION Chapter

1 HRD and ‘Joined-Up’ Policy 2

Andre Kraak

SECTION ONE CONTEXT

2 Overview of the South African Economy 32

Anna McCord

3 Overview of Industrial Policy 64

Miriam Altman and Marina Mayer

4 The Skills Requirements of Specific Economic Sectors 86

Pundy Pillay

5 Employment and Labour Market Trends 112

Anna McCord and Haroon Bhorat

6 The Informal Economy 142

Richard Devey, Caroline Skinner and Imraan Valodia

7 The Social and Human Development Context 164

Debbie Budlender

8 The Impact of HIV/AIDS 186

Jocelyn Vass

9 Science Policy Indicators 208

Nelius Boshoff and Johann Mouton

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SECTION TWO SUPPLY

12 Public Expenditure on Education 280

Russell Wildeman

13 Public Schooling 302

Helen Perry and Fabian Arends

14 Public Further Education and Training Colleges 326

Glen Fisher, Ros Jaff, Lesley Powell and Graham Hall

15 Public Higher Education 352

SECTION THREE SCARCE SKILLS

20 Forecasting the Demand for Scarce Skills, 2001-2006 458

Ingrid Woolard, Philip Kneebone and Deborah Lee

Luis Crouch and Helen Perry

Charlton Koen

23 Medical Practitioners and Nurses 522

Elsje Hall and Johan Erasmus

24 Engineers and Technicians 554

Grové Steyn and Reza C Daniels

25 Biotechnologists 584

David R Walwyn

Frank M Horwitz and Angus Bowmaker-Falconer

27 ICT and Associated Professionals 634

Percy Moleke, Andrew Paterson and Joan Roodt

28 HRD and the Skills Crisis 660

of learners from the schooling system into further and higher education and the world of work Morespecifically, the programme:

l conducts research on the supply side that examines the provision of public and private school education and training, particularly in the further and higher education bands;

post-l conducts research on the demand side that examines the characteristics of those skills that are indemand, those in short supply, and those that will be needed in the future;

l conducts research on the state’s new science and industrial policies and what the implications ofnew knowledge and innovation requirements will be for the education and training system; and

l conducts theoretical research aimed at developing an appropriate conceptual framework for analysinghuman resources

The research programme on HRD

The Research Programme on HRD was established in May 2001 as a result of two externaldevelopments Firstly, in October 2000, Cabinet mandated the HSRC to undertake research forgovernment in the field of HRD Government also appointed the HSRC to a joint Education andLabour Task Team commissioned to draw up an HRD Strategy for the country The policy document,

entitled An HRD Strategy for South Africa: A Nation at Work for a Better Life for All, was publicly

launched in April 2001 The HSRC Research Programme on HRD seeks to support this strategythrough the provision of strategic research and the dissemination of information

The second development occurred in December 2000 The Department of Science and Technologyawarded the HSRC a significant three-year research grant, ring-fenced specifically for HRD-relatedresearch work

The flagship project

This project has three components The first concerns the development of a comprehensive based, cross-sectoral data warehouse This infrastructure is oriented largely towards the provision ofimproved information and analysis to support government decision-making in the arena of HRD (seehttp://hrdwarehouse.hsrc.ac.za) The second is a biennial human resources development review thatprovides comprehensive analyses of key education and training, labour-market and macro-economicindicators Thirdly, the project produces an interpretive overview (in the format of a monograph) ofthe key trends in HRD in the post-apartheid period (see Kraak 2004).1 This Review is the first in aseries of biennial human resources development overviews to be published by the HSRC

v i HRD REVIEW l 2003

Conception of HRD

The key thesis underlying the project is that HRD is a cross-sectoral policy issue that is shaped by,and impacts on, a multitude of government policy domains such as education and training, thelabour market, and macroeconomic, industrial and foreign trade policies When combined or ‘joinedup’ in an interlocking and self-reinforcing way, the basket of government policies yields the appropriatehuman and technological capability necessary for future national economic success Human resourcesdevelopment is thus the ‘glue’ that helps to develop and sustain successful economic systems.This approach is underpinned by the necessity for education reforms to interlock and ‘join up’ withmacroeconomic, industrial and labour market reforms so that their combined impact has a betterchance of meeting the new conditions for global competitiveness – the attainment of high-qualitymanufacture through a highly skilled and highly productive workforce This view of HRD policy andplanning sees educational reform as constituting one component of a necessarily larger set of socio-economic reforms It posits the view that the attainment of successful reform in one institutionalsphere (such as education) is conditional on parallel changes occurring in other institutional spheres(for example, in the macroeconomic, labour market and work organisation environments).Effective HRD planning, particularly the co-ordination of all its cross-sectoral dynamics, is a keycondition for economic success This central proposition is asserted throughout the Review and issupported by four key assumptions:

l The increased primacy of education and training: One of the central implications of globalisation

is the increased importance of education and training, particularly given the demands for higherlevels of multi-functional skill competencies distributed across the entire workforce Improvededucation and training is a critical pre-requisite for successful participation in the rapidly globalising

‘knowledge’ economy

l The success of co-ordinated market economies: There is now sufficient evidence in the internationalliterature that, contrary to neo-liberal economic orthodoxy, co-ordinated market economies (in whichthe state plays a critical role in regulating economic development) are more successful in the age ofglobalisation than free market economies Effective human resources development policies are a keyrequirement of co-ordinated market economies This is because a country’s full HRD requirementsare rarely met by the market alone, but rather through a combination of market forces and deliberateplanning and co-ordination by the state over the medium to long term

l The importance of cross-sectoral policy co-ordination: Co-ordinated market economies arepremised on the development and implementation of cross-sectoral rather than mono-sectoralpolicy instruments Human resources development policies are intrinsically cross-sectoral

l The importance of data and information for HRD planning: The requirement of cross-sectoral

‘joined-up’ policy co-ordination and implementation makes extremely challenging and intensive demands on government A key condition for its success is the availability of comprehensivemanagement information systems across a wide array of socio-economic issues These enablegovernment-planners to respond timeously to complex and often dramatic social changes.For example, substantive shifts are likely to occur in the structure of the economy and itssectoral characteristics over the next five to ten years New growth areas will be triggered bygreater export activity, growth in small, medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs) of both thetechnological and survivalist kinds, spatial development initiatives, and economic sectoral

2003 l HRD REVIEW

clustering Employment patterns will shift away from declining sectors towards these new growthpoints The occupational structure will change as new skill requirements arise at both the high-and low-skill ends of the spectrum

Enormous pressure will be exerted on further and higher education institutions during this period torespond to these new skill demands Planners in government will need to measure the cross-sectoralimpact of all these shifts It is here that the development of a cross-sectoral management informationsystem will be of greatest value – a multifaceted data warehouse that combines information on boththe demand and supply sides in order to highlight and measure the extent to which government’sindustrial and employment objectives have been met Such a multifaceted data warehouse will alsoindicate whether equivalent changes have occurred on the supply side – that is, whether educationand training institutions have responded to changes in the economy and labour market

It is the government’s role to co-ordinate the key interlocking cross-sectoral policies and plan anational HRD strategy However, government does not possess the necessary management informationcapability to develop and carry out this planning and co-ordination on its own The aim of the HSRC’sbiennial HRD review and data warehouse project, then, is to assist government in acquiring thesecritical HRD policy requirements Through this Review and the Data Warehouse, the innovativecontribution of the HSRC and its research partners thus resides in:

l developing a multi-faceted, cross-sectoral data warehouse which provides easy access to acomprehensive set of data on the demand and supply sides of the HRD equation;

l combining databases that are currently maintained separately – specifically those describingeducation and training, and labour-market and employment conditions;

l conducting new qualitative and theoretical research that interrogates the quantitative data,yielding a richer reading of HRD conditions at the macro, meso and micro levels;

l doing secondary analyses of accumulated cross-sectoral data These interpretative analyses takethe traditional academic format of chapters in biennial HRD reviews and other academic papersmade available in the Data Warehouse;

l disseminating HRD information in simple, easy-to-use formats through easy and free access to theData Warehouse website, and through the biennial production and dissemination of the HRD reviews

There is no duplication between the production of existing government databases and the work of theHSRC The role of the HSRC and its research partners is to add value to these data sources byimproving linkages and comparisons across government databases and transforming this informationinto analytical, strategic and predictive analyses In so doing, the aim is to support better HRDplanning in South Africa in the medium to long term

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is that the Review can only work with older data The cut-off point for the HRD Review 2003 is largelyDecember 2000, although certain chapters are able to draw on data from 2001 and 2002 FutureHRD reviews will be similarly constrained

In conclusion, then, the project is a comprehensive attempt to describe and measure the complex,inter-related social conditions that characterise South Africa The book and the Data Warehouse,through the evidence they present, also identify certain critical ‘joined-up’ policy requirements that areessential for the future success of government’s HRD Strategy

Andre Kraak and Helene PeroldGeneral Editors

Note

1 Kraak, A (2004) An Overview of South African Human Resources Development: The Importance of ‘Joined-Up’ Policy Co-ordination and

Implementation, Human Sciences Research Council, Cape Town: HSRC Press

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2003 l HRD REVIEW

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authorship of this Review is institutional and therefore collective, and requires the acknowledgement

of the people who spent many weeks and months working on this project

The Department of Science and Technology

At the outset we pay tribute to the Department of Science and Technology, whose generous fenced grant for the period 2001 to 2003 has enabled us to produce a comprehensive and high-quality product

ring-The project team

We would like to acknowledge and thank our highly capable project team who made the Human

Resources Development Review 2003 and Data Warehouse website a reality: They are:

l General Editors: Andre Kraak and Helene Perold

l Project Managers of the Human Resources Development Review 2003: Leslie Powell, AnsieLombaard and Lindi Basson

l Project Manager of the Data Warehouse: Andrew Paterson

l The Data Warehouse technical development team: Robin Naude, Arjen van Zwieten and Helen Perry

Supporting the project team were the following people, to whom thanks are due for their importantcontributions to the project:

Kathleen Bartels (copy-editor); Martie Boesenberg (technical proofreader); Michael Cosser, GlendaKruss, Moeketsi Letseka, Simon McGrath and Andrew Paterson (proofreaders); Jeanne Cope (indexer);

Sue Munro (web pages); Gerald O’Sullivan (IT support); Lucia Lotter (search facility); Debbie Teixeiraand Nicky Clark of Manik Design (design and layout); Hans Ros (server administration); RichardRufus-Ellis (external proofreader); Monica Seeber and Kyle McCloughlin (permissions); Marise Swardt(picture research)

Authors

We thank the following authors who contributed their research and analyses from their positionsoutside the HSRC and those within: Salim Akoojee, Miriam Altman, Fabian Arends, Azeem Badroodien,Tracy Bailey, Haroon Bhorat, Nelius Boshoff, Angus Bowmaker-Falconer, Debbie Budlender, LuisCrouch, Reza C Daniels, Richard Devey, Jacques L du Toit, Johan Erasmus, Glen Fisher, Elsje Hall,Graham Hall, Frank M Horwitz, Ros Jaff, Philip Kneebone, Charlton Koen, Andre Kraak, DeborahLee, Marina Mayer, Anna McCord, Percy Moleke, Johann Mouton, Andrew Paterson, Helen Perry,Pundy Pillay, Lesley Powell, Joan Roodt, Caroline Skinner, Grové Steyn, George Subotzky, ImraanValodia, Jocelyn Vass, David R Walwyn, Russell Wildeman and Ingrid Woolard

l Adrienne Bird, Deputy Director-General, Department of Labour

l Ian Bunting, Director of Planning, Higher Education branch of the national Department of Education

l Trevor Coombe, formerly Deputy Director-General, Department of Education, Pretoria, and currently

an education consultant

l Adeline du Toit, Professor and Head of Department of Information Studies, Rand AfrikaansUniversity

l Hugh Lauder, Professor of Education, Bath University

l Ian Macun, Director, Skills Development Planning Unit, Department of Labour

l Enver Motala, formerly Deputy Director-General, Department of Education, Gauteng Province,and currently an education consultant

l Joe Muller, Professor of Education, University of Cape Town

l Helen Perry, independent contractor specialising in education management information systems(EMIS) and education planning

l Pundy Pillay, Senior Research Economist for the Research Triangle Institute (SA)

l Chris Rensleigh, Lecturer, Department of Information Studies, Rand Afrikaans University

l Charles Simkins, Professor of Economics, University of the Witwatersrand

l Eddie Webster, Professor of Industrial Sociology, University of the Witwatersrand

l Michael Young, Professor of Education, Institute of Education, University of London

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2003 l HRD REVIEW

GLOSSARY

Black.This term includes African, coloured and Indian South Africans

Homeland. An area designated under the apartheid system as a self-governing territory for differingcategories of Africans, defined largely by race Some of these territories were later decreed as so-called

‘independendent’ states These included the former Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei

Indian. This term designates one of the population groups in South Africa and includes all Asians

Learner. The term ‘learner’ is now widely used in South Africa, specifically in Education Departmentlegislation and policy documents, in preference to ‘student’, to reflect a more active, inclusive andlifelong process of learning

Educators refer to any person who teaches, educates or trains other people at an education institution

The term is used in preference to the more traditional ‘teacher’ to broaden the scope of activitiesinvolving people engaged in some form of education of others

Education programmes refer to different types of education provision, e.g early childhood development,adult basic education and training, primary and secondary schooling, further education and training,and higher education (Chapter 12)

Endorsement is the minimum condition for entry to a degree programme at a university Learnerswho pass the Senior Certificate Examination with endorsement are qualified to enter university Theconditions for a Senior Certificate with endorsement are established by the South African UniversitiesVice-Chancellors Association (SAUVCA) (Chapter 15)

Establishment posts in FET colleges are posts paid for by the provincial education authorities(Chapter 14)

A Further Education and Training College refers to a college which provides further education and

training on the basis of full-time, part-time or distance provision, and which is (a) established orregarded as having been established as a public further education and training institution under theFurther Education and Training Act No 98 of 1998; (b) declared a public further education andtraining institution under this Act; or (c) registered or conditionally registered as a private furthereducation and training institution under this Act (Chapter 14)

Full-time equivalent (FTE) is a measure used to calculate the subsidy paid by government to highereducation institutions The measure is based on one student enrolled full-time for a degree programme

in contact mode for a whole academic year A student studying full-time for a six-monthly semesterprogramme would be the equivalent of 0.5 FTE

Gini coefficient. The Gini coefficient is a figure between 0 and 1, which can be multiplied by 100 togive a figure between 0 and 100 The same idea is being represented in both cases, with 0 representingperfect equality and 1 (or 100) representing perfect inequality (Chapters 2, 7, 11)

Gross enrolment ratio (GER) is a measure of access and coverage It measures the proportion of thepopulation that the school system covers and the capacity of schools to accommodate the population(Chapter 13)

Headcount refers to the number of individual students in a higher education institution Headcountsinclude all enrolments regardless of the length of the course or programme Consequently, each short-term and part-time student is counted in the same way as full-time enrolments Headcounts thuspresent a potentially inflated picture of the size of the system To address this, full-time equivalent(FTE) enrolments are calculated by converting headcounts to the full-time one-year equivalent of eachenrolment Thus, a student enrolled for a half-year semester course will count as 0.5 of an FTEenrolment (Chapter 15)

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Higher education. A level of educational provision defined by the National Qualifications Framework(NQF) in South Africa as including all qualifications from Level 5 to Level 8 on the NQF Defineddifferently, higher education includes all education programmes at the post-school, pre-degree level,including certificates, diplomas and higher diplomas (Level 5 programmes), as well as all undergraduatedegree and postgraduate degree programmes, from bachelor degrees to the doctoral level (Level 6-8programmes)

Historically advantaged institutions. This term refers to institutions that, under apartheid, weredesignated to serve white students, preserving the socio-economic domination of the white population.These institutions enjoyed relative advantage through preferential resource allocation, and betterfacilities, infrastructure and access to developmental opportunities (Chapter 15)

Historically disadvantaged institutions. This term refers to institutions that, under apartheid, weredesignated to serve the various ethnic groups of the black (African, Indian and coloured) populationthrough a restricted range of teaching programmes and very limited research, thereby ensuring thesocio-economic subservience of the black population They consequently suffered various disadvantageswith regard to funding, location, facilities and developmental opportunities (Chapter 15)

Internal labour markets are located within specific enterprises In these markets, jobs are usuallyfilled by internal promotion, and skills are acquired internally rather than through the acquisition andpossession of externally recognised qualifications (Chapters 1 and 28)

Junior teaching staff in further education institutions are defined as lecturers and senior lecturers(post levels 1 and 2) Non-teaching staff refers to staff appointed to provide administrative andsupport services to the institution (Chapter 14)

Learnerships. Learnerships are aimed at providing workplace learning in a structured and systematicform through the provision of both formalised learning and structured work experience Learnershipcontracts are signed in a three-way agreement between the employer, education and training provider,and learner (Chapter 1)

Lekgotla. A Setswana word referring traditionally to a gathering of the (male) elders Today it is widelyused in South Africa to refer to a strategic planning session, often at a retreat away from work(Chapter 1)

NATED 191. An official government policy document that spells out the norms and standards definingpublic FET (technical) college curricula

Net enrolment ratio (NER) is a measure of the internal efficiency of the schooling system and onlymeasures those learners who are the appropriate age for the primary or secondary phase (Chapter 13)

Net participation rate. A net participation rate expresses the ratio of the total headcounts of learners

in a defined age cohort (such as the age cohort of 15 to 29) to the total population in the same agecohort (in this case the age cohort of 15 to 29) Statistics South Africa publishes the nationalpopulation census data (Chapter 14)

Non-African historically disadvantaged universities are the Universities of the Western Cape andDurban-Westville (Chapter 15)

Non-African historically disadvantaged technikons are Peninsula Technikon and ML Sultan Technikon(Chapter 15)

Non-DoE programmes refer to those programmes offered by Further Education and Training collegesthat are not accredited by the Department of Education through NATED 191 (Chapter 14)

Non-establishment posts are posts paid for from the College Council funds of Further Education andTraining colleges (Chapter 14)

Relative Education Qualification Value (REQV) refers to a qualification grouping of teaching staff.

For example, all honours, master’s and doctoral degrees have a REQV level of 15 and above Higherdiplomas and bachelors degrees have a REQV level of 14 All diplomas are at REQV level 13

Educators are considered to be unqualified or underqualified if they have a qualification resulting inREQV level 10, 11 or 12 (Chapter 21)

Senior teaching staff at FET colleges are defined as heads of department, vice-principals and principals(post levels 3, 4 and 5) (Chapter 14)

Learner/educator ratio describes the average number of learners per educator in the school system

The ratio is calculated by dividing the total enrolment of learners by the total teaching staff

Special purpose historically disadvantaged universities comprise MEDUNSA and Vista University(Chapter 15)

Throughput rates as defined at higher education institutions. Throughput rates in higher educationare defined institutionally as: the total number of students who graduate from a higher educationinstitution each year, as a percentage of the total number of students enrolled in that institution

Throughput rates as defined in technical colleges refer to the number of learners who enrol at thebeginning of an education programme and who pass the examination at the end of the year The

‘throughput rate’ is distinct from the ‘pass rate’, which is defined as the number of learners who pass

an examination expressed as a percentage of the total number of learners who qualify to write theexamination, and who actually write the examination For example: A programme has 100 learnerswho enrol in February at the start of the academic year Ten drop out during the year At the time ofthe examination (usually in October/November of each year), 90 learners qualify to write, and 45learners pass The pass rate is therefore 50 per cent, but the throughput rate is 45 per cent – a lowerstatistic reflecting the drop-out factor

Tradables are goods that can be exported In the context of industrial and trade policy, the termrefers to manufactured goods In the broader economy it includes primary products (i.e agricultureand minerals) and, more recently, services (Chapter 3)

Wage goods are staple goods such as food, clothing and housing (Chapter 3)

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Note: All this data can be downloaded in Excel format off the HSRC’s Data Warehousewebsite on http://hrdwarehouse.hsrc.ac.za

CONTEXTChapter 1 HRD and ‘Joined-Up’ PolicyTable 1 Institutions critical to the development of human resources 5

Table 2 Estimated number of annual school-leavers who enter the labour market

for the first time and get jobs, 2000-2002 14

Figure 1 Average annual through-flow of school-leavers entering the youth labour market

Chapter 2 Overview of the South African EconomyTable 1 Real GDP growth in South Africa, 1996/97-2001/02 39

Table 3 Components of expenditure, 1994, 1996 and 2001 at 1995 prices (R million) 41

Table 4 Change in composition of gross capital formation, 1994 and 2001 (R million) 42

Table 5 Key fiscal indicators as percentage of GDP, 1995-2004 (MTEF projection for 2004/05) 47

Table 6 Consolidated national and provincial expenditure by service, 1998/99 and

Table 7 Average percentage spending growth by service, 1998/99-2003/04 52

Table 8 Average annual change in adjusted provincial expenditure, 1997-2003 52

Table 9 Consolidated national and provincial social service spending by sector,

1998/99 and 2004/05 (MTEF projection for 2004/05) (R million) 54

Table 10 Trends in consolidated national and provincial social service spending by sector,

1998/99-2004/05 (MTEF projection for 2004/05) (R million) 54

Table 11 Provincial social service expenditure by sector (nominal),

1997/98-2003/04 (MTEF projection for 2003/04) (R billion) 55

Table 12 Provincial education expenditure, 1997/98-2003/04 (MTEF projection for

Figure 1 CPIX and real growth in GDP, 1996/97-2001/02 40

Figure 2 Gross capital formation in 1995 prices 41

Figure 3 Change in composition of gross capital formation, 1994-2001 42

Figure 4 Net foreign direct investment flows, 1993-2000 (R million) 43

Figure 5 Budget deficit as percentage of GDP, 1996/97-2004/05 (MTEF projection for

Figure 6 Government expenditure and real and nominal growth, 1996/97-2004/05

(MTEF projection for 2004/05)(R million) 48

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Figure 7 Consolidated national and provincial expenditure by service, 2004/05 MTEF projection 51

Figure 8 Consolidated national and provincial social service expenditure by sector,

Figure 9 Social service expenditure (nominal), 1997/98-2003/04 (MTEF projection for

Figure 10 Sectoral shares of provincial expenditure, 2001/02 56

Chapter 3 Overview of Industrial Policy

Figure 1 Growth in exports, 1991-2000 (weighted average annual growth rates,

Figure 2 South Africa’s exports to Africa, 1992-2001 (R thousand) 72

Figure 3 Composition of South Africa’s exports to Africa, 2001 72

Figure 4 Rates of output growth by technological composition (value added),

Figure 5 Factor intensity of South Africa’s exports, 1992 and 1999 74

Figure 6 Percentage change in demand for labour by industrial sector, 1991-2000 79

Chapter 4 The Skills Requirements of Specific Economic SectorsTable 1 The impact of industry drivers on skills needs, short to medium term 93

Table 2 Projected growth (percentage) in the banking sector and GDP, 2002-2004 94

Table 3 Employment trends in media, printing and publishing compared with

aggregate employment and manufacturing employment trends, 1993-2002 103

Table 4 Output, wages and employment trends in the media, printing and publishing sector,

Table 6 Contribution of selected sectors to GDP, 1999 105

Table 7 Tourism sector: Employment and direct contribution to GDP, 1997-2002 105

Table 8 Tourism sector: Employment, and direct and indirect contribution to GDP, 1997-2002 106

Table 9 Employment trends in manufacturing and tourism as a percentage

Figure 1 Real annual growth of the financial and businesses services sector

relative to the economy (GDP), 1990-2001 89

Figure 2 Change in employment in the financial services sector relative to

Figure 3 Growth in the business services sector, 1996-2003 91