Fundamental categories of literature
Literature is categorized into distinct genres, each representing a historically developed type of literary expression, whether in prose or poetry A genre embodies a specific aesthetic perspective of reality and features a consistent structure that organizes its elements, creating a unique imaginative world The primary literary kinds, or genera, include epic, lyric, and drama, with each genre contributing to the overall richness of literary art.
The genres of narrative prose belong to the kind, or genus, of epos They are a novel (to wit, psychological, historical, epic, etc.), a story, a short story, a fable, a parable and others 2
The emergence of new journalistic genres has transformed traditional narrative prose, introducing forms such as essays, which are concise literary pieces that argue a specific point or explore a topic; pamphlets that critique and satirize societal issues; editorials that articulate the editor's viewpoint on various subjects; and feuilletons that provide critical commentary.
The principal lyric genres are a lyric poem (a lyric); a sonnet
A lyric poem is traditionally a short, single-stanza piece written in iambic pentameter, featuring 14 lines that rhyme in various patterns Other forms of lyric poetry include epistles, which are written as letters; elegies, which reflect on solemn themes such as death; and additional genres like romances, madrigals, epitaphs, epigrams, and eclogues.
Lyric-epic genres are a unique form of poetry that incorporate a plot, encompassing various styles such as epic poems, dramatic poems, verse novels, odes, fables, and ballads.
Dramatic genres are a (straight) play, or a drama, a tragedy, a comedy (including a farce — a broadly comic play full of slapstick humour and exaggeration, a grotesque — a comedy
2 A story - повесть, a short story - рассказ
3 An essay – очерк, a feuilleton [fWj’toŋ] - фельетон based on unnatural or bizarre situations, a vaudeville and a theatrical miniature), a melodrama
Imaginative prose revolves around a central theme and explores various ideas, often asserting or denying specific principles The author addresses significant problems and questions that require resolution, which manifest through concrete conflicts These conflicts may arise between characters, the protagonist and their environment, or the character's internal struggles and contradictions.
The title of a literary text deserves special consideration.
The words of the title are fraught with sense, if only because they stand in ‘a strong position’, at the very beginning of the text The title may have:
a generalizing function — declaring the theme of a text or explicitly emphasizing its idea, e.g., ‘Americans in
S Lewis, ‘In Another Country’ by E Hemingway,
‘Time of Hope’ by C P Snow
an allegoric function — hinting at the implications 4 of a text through unrealistic, metaphorical images, e.g., ‘I Knock at the Door’ from ‘Autobiographies’ by S. O’Casey
Allegoric titles often reference legendary narratives from various eras, including biblical, ancient, and medieval tales For instance, K A Porter's 'Ship of Fools' derives its name from a medieval allegory Additionally, some titles are inspired by quotations from other literary works, further enriching their allegorical significance.
‘For Whom the Bell Tolls’ by Hemingway — from the English poet John Donne (1573—1631); ‘Cabbages and Kings’ by O. Henry — from Lewis Carroll’s ‘Through the Looking-Glass’
a symbolic function — hinting at the implications of a text through realistic images or details, present in the text itself, e.g., ‘Lord of the Flies’ by W Golding, ‘Wild
4 Implication (подтекст) is hidden sense, underlying meanings of a text Also see below about different layers of sense.
an ironic or a satirizing function, sometimes due to play on words, e.g., ‘Special Duties’ by G Greene
In many cases, the title fulfils several functions simultaneously
Many literary works include epigraphs, which are often quotes from other texts or unique introductions These epigraphs play a significant role in conveying the themes and concepts of the work, whether directly or through allegorical and symbolic interpretations.
Every prose literary work features a narrator who conveys the author's perspective, either directly or indirectly Narration can be presented in both first-person and third-person modes When told from a third-person viewpoint, it often involves an impersonal omniscient narrator.
‘knowing everything’, though not taking part in the events described
In first-person narration, the narrator can be a close friend of the protagonist, sharing their experiences, as seen with Dr Watson's accounts of Sherlock Holmes Alternatively, the narrator may take on a more impersonal role, acting as an observer or witness to the events, a technique utilized in some of W Somerset Maugham's short stories Additionally, the speech of a first-person narrator can vary in style, either incorporating unique idiolectal features or remaining more neutral and stylized.
First-person narration creates a unique effect when a hero recounts events from their past, such as childhood or adolescence This perspective allows the character to share personal experiences and emotions tied to significant actions they were involved in during their formative years.
In Hemingway's 'For Whom the Bell Tolls,' the title is enriched by an epigraph from John Donne that underscores the interconnectedness of humanity Donne's words convey that no individual exists in isolation; rather, each person is part of a larger community He emphasizes that the loss of any person diminishes us all, illustrating that we are all involved in the collective experience of mankind The poignant message culminates in the reminder that the tolling of the bell signifies a universal truth: it tolls for each of us.
In narrative structures where the same person recounts events from a retrospective viewpoint, a unique dynamic emerges between the narrator and the protagonist Their thoughts and expressions may align at times, while at other moments, they diverge, creating a sense of intimacy or distance This interplay often incorporates represented speech, which can be subtle and difficult to separate from the main narrative A notable example of this narrative style is found in C P Snow's novel "Time of Hope."
The mode of narration significantly impacts the perspective of a composition When narrated in the third person by an omniscient narrator, it broadens the reader's understanding of historical events, allowing for a comprehensive view of the situation Conversely, a first-person narration from a close narrator narrows the perspective, immersing the reader in the experiences and emotions of a single individual.
The overall narration comprises key elements such as the narrative proper, descriptions, authorial digressions, and character dialogue The narrative proper focuses on the plot and the continuous development of the action In literary theory, a distinction is made between scenic narrative, which highlights specific events, and panoramic narrative, which offers a broad overview of an extended timeframe.
Narrative differs from description, as it focuses on the sequence of events rather than the static coexistence of objects While descriptions aim to illustrate nature, settings, and appearances for direct characterization, narratives unfold actions and developments over time Occasionally, a combination of both elements occurs, creating a blend that enriches the storytelling experience.
‘dynamic description’ A description of scenery and setting, especially, of nature, often serves as a tool for characterization, as it may emphasize and set off the subtlest hues of a character’s emotions
Imagery in a text
Nomination in language and speech
A man shapes reality by identifying concepts and assigning them names, which, once established in a community's mind, symbolize specific notions These names gain meaning and establish rules for their use in language, integrating into the system of linguistic signs In linguistics, two primary approaches to understanding words exist: the onomasiological approach, which focuses on how names are derived from objects and concepts in reality, and the semasiological approach, which examines words as abstract units with multiple meanings The former investigates the process of naming, while the latter explores the meanings associated with words.
Writing is a creative expression that reflects the author's thoughts and the surrounding world through imaginative prose It involves the use of imagery to evoke objects, people, and events, allowing readers to interpret meanings and visualize similar images To effectively analyze a text, both onomasiological and semasiological approaches are essential This section will focus on the process of nomination and its various types in fiction and poetry, followed by an exploration of the meanings of tropes and figures of speech.
The process of naming objects (realistic or conceivable),
Nomination refers to the 20 denotates, attributes, relationships, processes, and actions conveyed by words, as defined by ЯН in 1977 To differentiate between words used in belles-lettres or poetry and those found in a dictionary or standardized texts, it is essential to consider three key dichotomies: first, the distinction between primary and secondary nomination; second, the contrast between usual and occasional nomination; and third, the differentiation between nomination with and without the transfer of denominations.
In literature, the naming of objects and concepts can be categorized into two fundamental types of lexical nomination identified by linguists The first type is primary nomination, which refers to the original creation of words using available phonetic materials and affixes The second type is secondary nomination, which involves utilizing existing lexical units or root morphemes to represent new concepts or ideas.
In language as a system of fixed signs (F de Saussure’s
‘langue’ [lǻŋ]) primary nomination is scarcely traceable, it includes sound imitation (cluck, moo, blurt, mumble, flap, flip, flop) and sound symbolism (glimmer, shimmer, scatter, glare, gloat, fidget)
Nowadays the domain of primary nomination is speech (F de Saussure’s ‘parole’) is poetry, especially formalistic, and similar texts One of the famous examples of primary naming is
In Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking-Glass," the poem "Jabberwocky" begins with the whimsical lines: "Twas brillig, and the slithy toves / Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; / All mimsy were the borogoves, / And the mome raths outgrabe." Shchepkina-Kupernik's translation captures the essence of this playful language, inviting readers into a fantastical world filled with imaginative creatures and nonsensical phrases.
‘Верлиока’: ‘Било супно Кругтелся, винтясь по земле, / Склипких козей царапистый рой / Тихо мисиков стайка грустела в мгие / Зеленавки хрющали порой’ [Carroll, 1966].
In this connection we may also well cite the famous sentence coined by L V Shcherba: ‘Глокая куздра штеко будланула
23 номинации с переносом наименований и без него
24 создание нового слова бокра и кудрячит бокренка’.
Primary nomination is occasionally employed for stylistic purposes, for example J Joyce embedded his works with plentiful coinages, viz goldskinned, snotgreen, basiliskeyed, ghostcandled, etc (Ulysses).
Secondary nomination is the main type of nomination, both in language as an ideal system of signs and in speech as its actualization
In secondary nomination, a word's ability to represent new concepts leads to a shift in its original meaning, resulting in polysemy This semantic change occurs when a term is transferred from its traditional context to a new one, primarily through metaphor, which involves a transfer based on similarity, and metonymy, based on contiguity For example, the word "cat" can refer to both a small domestic animal and a mean, unpleasant woman (metaphor), while "pin-point" can denote both the tip of a pin and the military act of indicating an exact position (conversion, metaphor).
In secondary nomination, a speaker categorizes an object by selecting a specific name that reflects its characteristics Each object possesses countless features, some of which hold objective significance, while others may be secondary or less noticeable, yet crucial to the speaker Consequently, any object can be referred to by numerous names, with the chosen term influenced by the speaker's perspective and communicative intent, such as using "man," "chap," "guy," "fellow," or "person."
Secondary nominations can arise from semantic processes such as generalization and specialization of meaning, which involve broadening or narrowing the class of objects referred to by a word For example, the word "bird" originates from Old English "bridd," meaning 'a young bird,' while "meat" has evolved to refer to food in general.
O E mete — ‘food’); elevation / degradation of meaning, i.e change of connotations of meanings (fond, nice — originally ‘foolish’, ‘simple’; sly, crafty, cunning — originally ‘dexterous’); the change of an initial denotative meaning into a modal or auxiliary one, resulting in desemantization (make — 1) to produce smth., 2) to force or cause smb to do smth) Finally, secondary nomination embraces morphological ways of naming — e.g hunter, kindness(affixation), keyhole (composition) and phraseologization — black pudding(кровяная колбаса). individual; Sergeant, blockhead, her only son, etc.)
In the realm of parole, a significant distinction exists between usual and occasional nominations Usual nominations refer to culturally established associations between words and their meanings, such as the term "fox" symbolizing a "sly person." In contrast, occasional nominations involve unique word associations crafted to achieve a specific stylistic effect, as demonstrated in Ernest Hemingway's story "The Capital of the World."
In a poignant twist of irony, a girl uses the term 'matador' as a derogatory insult towards a bullfighter who has faltered in the arena, reflecting her disillusionment and rejection of his affections By calling him 'My matador,' she highlights the contrast between his failed bravado and her disdain, infusing the term with a deeper, sarcastic meaning.
The third dichotomy highlights the distinction between two types of nomination in parole: with and without transfer of denominations Transfer of denominations refers to instances where a word is used in a transferred, indirect, or figurative meaning, such as metaphorical or metonymical contexts In contrast, the absence of transfer signifies the contextual actualization of a word in its direct meaning.
In conclusion, it is important to note that while nomination in langue primarily focuses on lexical elements, parole encompasses both propositional nomination, which identifies specific situations or events through sentences, and discursive nomination, which represents a broader spectrum of facts through text.
Listed below you will find the most important stylistic devices — images, tropes and figures of speech used in literature.
Imagery without transfer of denominations
Image is a) a specific sign of art and literature, whose form
The integration of a verbal description or visual object enhances its meaning while also allowing for broader associations This process involves the artistic generalization of human traits and qualities, creating a deeper connection between the content and its representation.
26 образы-автологии in a literary personage
Images meaning (a) make up poetic pictures — artistic descriptions, employed to produce a vivid effect and render certain emotional and aesthetic impression
dynamic (a blend of action and description)
Quoted below is an example of a realistic poetic picture without transfer of denominations:
A cold wind sweeps from the north-east, carrying blue mottled clouds over the road leading to the contagious hospital Beyond the hospital, expansive muddy fields lie waste, dotted with patches of standing water and brown dried weeds, while tall trees are scattered throughout the landscape.
All along the road the reddish, purplish, forked, upstanding, twiggy stuff of bushes and small trees with dead, brown leaves under them leafless vines —
Lifeless in appearance, sluggish dazed spring approaches —
They enter the new world naked, cold, uncertain of all save that they enter…
W C Williams' poem vividly captures the arrival of spring through a series of cohesive images such as clouds, fields, and trees These elements are intricately described using binary genitive combinations and expressive epithets, like "the surge of the blue mottled clouds" and "the waste of broad, muddy fields." Each image stands alone without transferring meanings from one object to another, showcasing their autologous nature The abstract terms "waste," "stuff," and "patch" possess clear, singular meanings, unlike typical tropes The only exception is the metaphor "the surge," which evokes a more imaginative interpretation within the poem's context.
‘the surge of the blue mottled clouds’
Despite being autologous, these images exhibit remarkable vividness and expression They also take on a generalized and abstract quality, symbolizing the arrival of spring while expanding their meanings to encompass themes of 'disorder' and 'abandonment.'
The poem initially conveys feelings of desolation and lifelessness, characterized by negative connotations and a muted color palette However, as the poem progresses, these connotations shift dramatically, culminating in a moment of clarity where "one by one objects are defined," bringing forth a vibrant outline of a leaf that signifies renewal and awakening.
The personification in the phrase "lifeless in appearance, sluggish / dazed spring approaches" evokes a vivid image of inanimate objects slowly awakening to life As they "enter the new world naked, / cold, uncertain of all," it captures the essence of rebirth and the uncertainty that comes with new beginnings.
The poetic lines, which follow, represent a surrealistic image without transfer of denominations
My eyes are doors the moon walks through them i have the moon in my head it is white round luminous as they say it is heavy
27 Автология, согласно С М Мезенину [1984] – образ, выраженный словами в их прямом, а не фигуральном значении
The passage presents a surrealistic image of the 'moon,' which symbolizes the author's imaginative realm rather than serving as a metaphor for something else Upon closer inspection, it becomes clear that the moon represents only itself, existing in a unique dimension that reflects the creativity of the author.
Finally, let us consider an example of a dynamic poetic picture where action and description are blended carrying a bunch of marigolds wrapped in an old newspaper:
She carries them upright, bareheaded, the bulk of her thighs causing her to waddle as she walks looking into the store window which she passes on her way…
What is she but an ambassador from another world a world of pretty marigolds… holding the flowers upright as a torch so early in the morning
The dynamic imagery in narrative 29 captures a common Negro woman carrying a stunning bunch of marigolds, symbolizing beauty and grace The concluding lines create a powerful metaphor and simile, portraying her as "an ambassador from another world" and likening the flowers she holds to a "torch," enhancing the emotional resonance for the reader.
Tropes
TROPE — LEXICO-SEMANTIC STYLISTIC DEVICE BASED ON TRANSFER OF DENOMINATIONS AND USED FOR CREATING TRANSFERRED IMAGES
A trope, often called a FIGURE OF REPLACEMENT, involves one name substituting another, distinguishing it from figures of co-occurrence where two names appear together This distinction, highlighted by linguists such as Yu M Skrebnev, emphasizes the unique function of tropes in language.
Tropes involve the simultaneous presence of two distinct ideas, referred to as the 'tenor' and 'vehicle' in I A Richards' terminology The tenor represents the subject of the thought, while the vehicle is the item, person, characteristic, or abstract notion to which the tenor is compared For example, in the phrase "white mares of the moon" (vehicle) and "night clouds" (tenor), the comparison illustrates the relationship between these two elements.
Tropes are fundamentally psychological constructs that create associations between ideas, emotions, and sensations Logically, they operate through analogy, drawing connections between seemingly different entities based on inferred similarities The shared characteristic that underpins both psychological and logical tropes is referred to as the ground or tertium comparationis.
Tropes can be categorized as etymological elements within a language's lexical system, where they are defined and recognized by dictionaries Examples include lexical metaphors such as "foot of a mountain" and "back of a book," as well as lexical metonymy like "table" in the phrase "to keep the table amused."
Familiar tropes, often seen as trite or clichéd, serve as stable units in communication, bridging the gap between linguistic signs, such as set phrases, and speech signs.
Examples of familiar metaphors are ‘we must all put our
Metonymy is exemplified by phrases like "the heart of Braddle will not cease to beat," while synecdoche is illustrated through "a fleet of fifty sail." Additionally, hyperbole is represented in expressions such as "tons of money." These literary devices enhance language by creating vivid imagery and emphasizing concepts.
‘each chapter explodes a hundred lies’, ‘I am so hungry I could eat a horse’
Finally, tropes may be genuine (original, occasional, individual), the author’s creations, which occur in speech, especially in literature
1 Metaphor (transfer by similarity) — a trope, consisting in transfer of the name of an object or phenomenon to another object or phenomenon based on the logical relation of similarity between them (in compliance with the traditional definition, based on similarity)
For example, ‘breathing on the base rejected clay’; ‘o, small dust of the earth that walks so arrogantly’; ‘consider these — a freak growth, root in rubble’
Extensive research on metaphor has led us to provide an overview of its key theories In the 1930s, notable figures such as the English literary critic, linguist, philosopher, and poet contributed significantly to the understanding of metaphor.
I A Richards, who based his ideas on metaphor largely on Aristotle’s rhetoric, defined metaphor as a transfer by similarity. According to his theory, the name of a certain concept, a vehicle 31 , is transferred to another concept, a tenor 32 on the basis of a ground 33 - some similar property existing between the vehicle and the tenor [Ричардс, 1990] This three-part model of metaphor made it a semantic equal to simile, the classical model of which is primum comparationis (vehicle), secundum comparationis (tenor) and tertium comparationis (ground) In compliance with this theory, a metaphor was defined as a ‘latent’, or ‘hidden’ simile
Max Black expanded on Richards' ideas through his theory of interaction, simplifying metaphors to two key components and highlighting that they do not possess inherent similarities He posited that metaphors generate similarity instead of reflecting any existing connections, stating, "The maker of a metaphorical statement selects, emphasizes, suppresses, and organizes features of the primary subject by applying to it statements isomorphic with the members of the secondary subject’s implicative complex" (Black, 1954: 28).
M Black’s idea has been the ground for subsequent theoretic growth, especially in cognitive linguistics George Lakoff, whose theory of conceptual metaphors is considered basic in Anglo-Saxon linguistics nowadays, assumed that a metaphor is a mapping of knowledge from a domain sphere to a target sphere 34 , which results in numerous concrete manifestations [Lakoff, 1993] For instance, the mapping A LOVE RELATIONSHIP IS A VEHICLE includes the following sub-mappings of ‘basic categories’: car (we have a long bumpy road ahead of us; we are spinning our wheels), train (we are off the track in our married life), boat (we are just on the rocks now; our love is foundering), plane (our relationship is just taking off; he bailed out before they got married)
While this theory has gained significant traction in the West, it has not yet firmly established itself in this country, where the concepts of transfer by similarity and the classical model of metaphor have been extensively developed The contributions of Russian linguists to this topic are invaluable and cannot be overstated.
Both two-sided and three-sided models of metaphor are valid, as they can effectively illustrate the components of metaphor In particular, noun metaphors with a concrete tenor—those that can be easily visualized—often allow for clear identification of all three metaphorical components.
For example, ‘Apollo’s upward fire (i.e the rising sun) made every eastern cloud a silvery pyre’ [Keats], where the vehicle is
‘upward fire’, the tenor is ‘the rising sun’ and the ground is similarity of substance and appearance ‘The house of birds’
34 проекция знания из сферы-источника в новую, осваиваемую сферу
(vehicle) meaning ‘the sky’ (tenor) is based on the similarity of function (ground).
In the poem, the imagery of leaves crying while clinging to wind-swept branches evokes a poignant sense of longing This moment captures the contrast between the vibrancy of life and the stark emptiness of winter The theme of nothingness is emphasized through the lifelessness and uniformity of the white landscape, highlighting the profound emptiness that winter brings.
Abstract noun metaphors present unique complexities, as they often involve emotions or concepts that are difficult to visualize For instance, the phrase "I am tired of smoke and mirrors" conveys a sense of disillusionment with transient illusions This type of metaphor can be interpreted in two ways: it may either align directly with the metaphor's ground, making it two-sided, or it could be three-sided, with the tenor residing outside the metaphor and instead reflected in the broader context of ephemeral experiences A poignant example can be found in Theodore Roethke's lines, where "an old wound" symbolizes suffering, and the metaphor can represent either mental anguish or a past event that caused pain.
Figures
FIGURE — STYLISTIC DEVICE BASED ON SYNTACTICAL ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND INTERACTION OF THEIR MEANINGS
FIGURE OF CO-OCCURRENCE, according to Y M.
Skrebnev — STYLISTIC DEVICE BASED ON INTERRELATIONS OF TWO OR MORE WORDS, ACTUALLY FOLLOWING ONE ANOTHER, AND THEIR MEANINGS.
A simile is a figure of speech that creates an imaginative comparison between two different elements, known as the tenor and vehicle, highlighting their similarities This comparison is made using a specific connective, which emphasizes the shared characteristics between the two.
Simile, one of the oldest and most common rhetorical devices, enriches the English language with vivid imagery Examples of lexical similes include phrases like "to jump about like a cat on hot bricks," "cross as a bear with a sore head," and "easy as falling off a log." These expressions enhance communication by creating relatable and striking comparisons.
Examples of familiar similes: Her face was as white as snow. She is as beautiful as a rose
Genuine similes enhance imagery in writing, such as Jim standing still like a setter sensing quail, or a child’s excitement before a first haircut The vivid comparison of the ruddy moon leaning over a hedge evokes the image of a red-faced farmer, while the wistful stars are likened to town children with their white faces, creating a rich tapestry of visual and emotional connections.
Tertium comparationis often remains hidden in a sentence's surface structure, rendering similes a nuanced stylistic tool For instance, in Lawrence's imagery, the act of Hindus weaving thin wool into lengthy strands is compared to slender trees sprouting leaves, creating a vivid picture of a delicate, living web.
Similes establish comparisons through various formal means These include the use of connectives like 'as' and 'like', as seen in Shakespeare's "I can suck melancholy out of a song, as the weasel sucks eggs," and Henry's description of defiance, "His eyes were full of hopeless tricky defiance like that seen in a cur’s cornered by his tormentors." Additionally, 'like' can be combined with the vehicle into compound adjectives, such as "egg-like head" or "frog-like jaws." Another form is the connective 'not so as', exemplified by the phrase, "The wind is not so unkind as man’s ingratitude." Furthermore, structures like 'no more (less) + N… than…' are used, as in "There is no more mercy in him than milk in a male tiger." Lastly, the structure 'with + N + of + N' can also be employed in comparisons.
Contiguity can occasionally serve as the foundation for a simile, exemplified by metonymic comparisons such as "She moves like living mercy bringing light," alongside vivid imagery like the "dry throaty rattle of pebbles" rolling down a gully Common conjunctions used in similes include "as though" and "as if," as seen in the phrase, "He wafted in the shivering guest as though he ushered a cardinal." Lexical expressions, including verbs like "to resemble" and "to look like," further illustrate this concept Many linguists categorize the binary metaphor, such as "a ghost of a smile" or "a nice little dumpling of a wife," as a form of simile.
Quasi-identity is a newly defined figure of speech that serves as an intermediary between metaphor and simile, characterized by the structure 'Tenor is Vehicle.' For instance, phrases like "she is a real angel" and "your brother is an ass" illustrate this concept effectively.
Metaphoric quasi-identities illustrate the complexity of existence, as seen in the imagery of a flower representing a vibrant sigh of color and the delicate essence of purple and saffron This reflects the notion that we are akin to ribless polyps, safeguarded by nature from deep contemplation through habitual routines, and shielded from triumph through a sense of tolerance.
Metonymic quasi-identities often express profound characteristics, such as calling someone "virtue incarnate" or describing a person as embodying "all youth, all beauty, all delight," as noted by Masefield Additionally, Lee's portrayal of a figure as "all angles and bones" illustrates the use of metonymy to convey essential qualities in a striking manner.
A play on words, or pun, is a form of humor that relies on the ambiguity created by homonyms, paronyms, or polysemy This linguistic device employs words that sound alike or are spelled similarly to evoke double meanings, often resulting in a comedic effect For example, the phrase "Seven days without water make one weak" cleverly plays on the word "week." Similarly, statements like "It is not my principle to pay the interest, and it is not my interest to pay the principal" showcase this technique Other instances, such as "Quite frequently I have seen fit to impugn your molars" (morals) and humorous limericks, further illustrate the playful nature of puns in language.
A maiden at college, Miss Breeze,
Weighed down by B A.’s and Ph D.’s
Said the doctor, ‘it’s plain
You are killing yourself — by degrees!’
Play on words serves not only to create humor but also to convey deeper meanings in literature, particularly in poetry In Dylan Thomas's poem "The force that through the green fuse drives the flower," the use of identical terms for different concepts illustrates the interconnectedness of the world in its diverse forms.
The force that through the green fuse drives the flower Drives my green age; that blasts the roots of trees
And I am dumb to tell the crooked rose
My youth is bent by the same wintry fever
The force that drives the water through the rocks
Drives my red blood; that dries the mouthing streams
And I am dumb to mouth unto my veins
How at the mountain spring the same mouth sucks
The hand that whirls the water in the pool
Stirs the quicksand; that ropes the blowing wind
And I am dumb to tell the hanging man
How of my clay is made the hangman's lime…
green (fuse of a flower and age),
mouth (mouthing streams, to mouth unto my veins, the same mouth sucks);
hauls my shroud sail (shroud — 1) ropes attaching masts to a board, ‘ванты’, 2) cloth in which a corpse is swathed, ‘саван’);
how of my clay is made the hangman’s lime (сlay
Zeugma is a rhetorical device where a single verb links two semantically incompatible subjects or objects, or an adjective connects with two incompatible nouns, often creating a humorous or ironic effect For example, the phrase "She possessed two false teeth and a sympathetic heart" illustrates this technique, as does "The ballet was on its last legs and night."
A paradox is a statement that appears self-contradictory yet reveals a deeper truth, often challenging commonly held beliefs Esteemed figures in English literature, such as Oscar Wilde and Bernard Shaw, are celebrated for their clever use of paradox For instance, Wilde quipped, "There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, and that is not being talked about," highlighting the complexities of public perception He further remarked, "What is a cynic? A man who knows the price of everything, and the value of nothing," illustrating the disconnect between material worth and intrinsic value Shaw also contributed to this literary device, stating, "There are no secrets better kept than the secrets that everybody guesses," and "He who can, does He who cannot, teaches," both of which encapsulate profound insights into human nature and societal roles.
An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines contradictory terms, where one word modifies the other, creating a semantic opposition This literary device highlights the internal contradiction of an idea or contrasts reality with pretense.
attribute and noun (cruel kindness, sweet sorrow),
noun and noun (sweetness of pain),
verb and noun (doomed to liberty),
verb and adverbial modifier (nicely rotting), etc
Antithesis [xn'tITqsIs] — a semantic opposition of two homogeneous words or parallel syntactical structures Its purpose is to express contrast or confrontation of some notions or ideas
Lexical antitheses illustrate contrasts such as "through thick and thin" and "to hunt for something high and low." Syntactical antitheses emphasize opposing ideas, as seen in phrases like "The prodigal robs his heir, the miser robs himself." Additionally, statements like "They are not beautiful: they are only decorated" and "They are not clean: they are only shaved and starched" highlight superficial qualities, revealing deeper truths.
In a broad sense antithesis implies contrasting two characters,world outlooks, fates, etc in a piece of writing For example, the antithesis of Pyle in G Greene’s ‘The Quiet American’ is Fowler
Analytical reading and text stylistics
Text stylistics, a recent branch of stylistics, focuses on the textual level of speech To enhance literary analyses, it is beneficial to explore the latest findings in this linguistic field However, it is important to use the recent meta-linguistic terminology judiciously to avoid making analyses overly complex or formal.
Language is structured in a hierarchical manner, consisting of layers of signs where each layer builds upon the previous one Phonemes combine to create morphemes, which then form words; these words come together to construct sentences, and sentences ultimately form texts Linguists often identify a layer of syntagmata—comprising free word combinations and set phrases—between words and sentences as essential components of language structure.
‘supraphrasal units’ between sentences and texts — sense blocks, formally equal to paragraphs [Galperin, 1977]
Text serves as a fundamental communicative sign, characterized by its structural-semantic, compositional, stylistic, and pragmatic unity As a comprehensive linguistic sign, text encompasses several categories at the supraphrasal level, including informativity, information density, and integrity, which reflects structural cohesion and coherence across various dimensions Additionally, text exhibits linearity and nonlinearity, completeness and incompleteness, as well as personality and impersonality Other essential attributes include purposefulness and the presence of semantic and emotive dominants, all contributing to its effectiveness in communication.
Verbal texts can be categorized into two types: oral and written Oral texts are primarily examined through psycholinguistics, linguistic pragmatics, and phonostylistics, while written texts are analyzed across various disciplines such as text linguistics, decoding stylistics, and narratology Currently, both forms of text are analyzed through discourse analysis, as defined by T van Dijk, which considers linguistic products within a wider context of extralinguistic factors.
On the plane of speech a text is a result of speaking, a
A 'speech product,' as defined by text linguistics founder W Dressler, refers to an actual ethical text that serves as a model or scheme of propositions connected by specific rules This concept encompasses three key aspects: the text model as a linguistic sign (the language plane), the various means of text generation through speech activity, and the text as a tangible speech product or discourse (the speech plane) The transformation of these text models into concrete speech products occurs during speech activity, highlighting the intricate relationship between language structure and practical communication.
Texts can be categorized into two main classes: cliche texts and flexible model texts Cliche texts follow strict structures and include official documents such as applications, reports, legal contracts, and scientific materials like specifications and patents In contrast, flexible model texts are divided into usual and occasional types Usual texts, such as articles and news reports, maintain a regulated structure, while occasional texts, including literary works and public essays, adopt a more freeform approach.
A text exhibits specific categorial properties, primarily characterized by integrity, which encompasses both structural cohesion and semantic coherence Structural cohesion ensures the correct arrangement of text fragments, while semantic coherence reflects the unity of content, integrating explicit information with implicit meaning The integrity of a text is influenced by its overall functional purpose and the role of each component within it.
Text models are composed of essential components known as communicative or sense blocks, which are interconnected and tailored to specific communication tasks These blocks serve as relatively complete units of meaning and can be formally represented as paragraphs, chapters, or plot segments in fictional works.
In fictional texts the denotative, explicit information is lodged in linear text-building blocks (текстообразующие блоки), which are usually logically connected, easily defined and singled out
The implicit meanings of a text are conveyed through distantly connected implicatures, which consist of text blocks that contain underlying ideas and implications While these implications are fixed within the text, they require readers to engage in a close analysis and compare various fragments This phenomenon unfolds in two stages: the initial ambiguous sense block creates tension and sets the stage for deeper implications, which can only be fully appreciated in the resolution of the text For further insights on implications, consult the works of Silman (1967) and Molchanova (1988).
In poetry, implicatures are more abundant than in prose due to the figurative nature of poetic language Modern poetry often embraces ambiguity and hypothetical elements, leading to diverse and sometimes contradictory implications that lack a cohesive theme Additionally, poetry exhibits an increase in implications and associative meanings, where words and phrases acquire new poetic significance This phenomenon, termed "significience" by R Barthes, reflects a 'chain reaction' of meanings, illustrating the interplay between signified and signifier Barthes describes imaginative texts as a 'play of signifiers,' highlighting the complex relationships within poetic expression.
In any written work, two opposing yet interconnected tendencies emerge: the intensification of explicitness, characterized by repetitions that enhance perception and memory, and the intensification of implications, marked by various text compression techniques that encourage deeper reflective engagement from the reader.
Text-arranging blocks are essential components of communication, categorized into three types: introductory blocks, which encompass titles, epigraphs, narrator introductions, and text expositions; conclusive blocks, including denouements and occasionally prologues that frame the text; and connecting blocks, such as subtitles, author repetitions, recurring facts, digressions, and descriptions that enhance coherence and flow.
Text-arranging blocks play a crucial role in shaping the reader's understanding by organizing essential information and establishing context through familiar facts These blocks, particularly the introductory and conclusive sections, are strategically positioned at the beginning and end of the text, enhancing its overall coherence and impact.
Ferdinand de Saussure introduced the concepts of the signifier and signified, which represent the form and meaning of a word in linguistic signs These terms highlight the dual nature of language, where the signifier refers to the word itself, while the signified pertains to the idea or concept it represents This distinction parallels Charles Morris's classification of designator and designatum, emphasizing the relationship between form and meaning across various signs, not limited to words alone.
50 Presupposition — a sense component of a sentence (or sense components of a text) which must be true as a condition for the perception of a sentence as semantically correct.
Principal doctrines of imaginative text in literary theory and stylistics
Different approaches to text treatment exist, and while the core elements of text comprehension remain consistent, emphasis can shift based on the analytical perspective taken.
According to information theorist C Shannon, information transfer involves five key components: the message sender, the coding and transmitting device, the communication channel and signal, the receiving and decoding device, and the message recipient This framework was further developed for linguistic and philological analysis by Michael Riffaterre and Roman Jakobson, who identified the primary functions of language based on Shannon's information transfer model.
The interpretation of any text can be approached from three perspectives: the author (addresser), the text itself (message), and the reader (addressee) This leads to three distinct types of stylistics: author’s (genetic) stylistics, text stylistics, and reader’s stylistics Modern literary criticism and stylistics support this framework, as many prevailing theories align with one of these three interpretative angles.
A text functions similarly to any semiotic system and can undergo structural analysis Structural poetics, developed by Yu M Lotman, outlines several stages of text comprehension: axiomatization involves identifying a clear basis for categorizing a system's elements; dissociation refers to breaking down an object into its structural components; association seeks to establish connections among these elements; identification determines the nature of relationships based on essential characteristics; and integration considers the overall coherence of the system's elements.
Author's stylistics examines the conception of a literary work, focusing on the writer's perspectives, literary trends, biography, environment, and historical context to identify the factors that shape the book's message and structure This approach is encapsulated by various literary doctrines.
Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov's research on belles-lettres focused on the study of a writer's idiom, leading to his discovery of 'the author’s image.' This concept serves as a unifying force that transforms a literary work into a cohesive verbal and artistic system, shaped by expressive means and stylistic devices of language Vinogradov distinguished between the author and the writer, suggesting that they relate as image and object; the author’s image occupies a specific imaginary spatial, temporal, and evaluative position within the text, while the writer represents the real, objective entity.
Professor Ilya Romanovich Galperin and his school emphasized the author's perspective, concentrating on the use of stylistic devices and expressive means These elements are characterized as the intentional and purposeful application of language units to achieve logical and emotional emphasis (Galperin, 1977).
German philologist Leo Spitzer focused on the compositional, stylistic, and linguistic characteristics shared by individual authors or groups of writers from specific time periods He also explored the roles of characters within a text, distinguishing between the narrating character, referred to as ‘erzählendes Ich,’ and the acting character, known as ‘erlebendes Ich’ [Spitzer, 1962].
Stylistics, as an independent discipline, focuses on the text itself, setting aside both the author's intentions and the reader's interpretations This approach has been developed by numerous prominent schools within literary criticism, emphasizing the text as a self-contained entity for analysis.
The New Criticism emerged as a significant school of literary criticism in the 1930s and 1940s, primarily in the USA, led by figures such as John Crowe Ransom, Robert Penn Warren, and Allen Tate, known as the fugitivists In Great Britain, it was further developed by prominent critics like T.S Eliot, Ivor Armstrong Richards, and William Empson This movement advocated for a fresh approach to literary analysis, focusing on the text itself rather than external factors.
‘ontological’ approach to literary studies in contradistinction to traditional criticism, which drew on biographical data and influences on a writer
The New Critics, while primarily focused on poetry, applied their principles to all literary forms, viewing texts as autonomous entities independent of their authors They emphasized the concept of 'organic form,' suggesting that a text possesses inherent structure and value in its existence alone, aligning with the idea of 'art for art's sake.' This organic form encourages deep introspection through close reading and an awareness of verbal detail and thematic organization Instead of relying on logical analysis, readers are encouraged to engage intuitively with the emotional message of the text This perspective is notably reflected in T.S Eliot's theory, which posits that poetry transcends scientifically verifiable propositions, offering readers a unique form of cognition, insight, or emotional experience.
The organic form of a text serves as an 'objective correlative' for the author's emotions, providing a verbal equivalent that poets choose for expression This form combines objects, situations, and events to create a formula for evoking concrete emotions By describing outer facts, a writer can trigger specific experiences in the reader's mind, ensuring that the corresponding emotions emerge Thus, a text acts as a medium for conveying emotional states.
Eliot argued that a protagonist's emotions must be balanced with concrete motivations grounded in facts He viewed Shakespeare's 'Hamlet' as an artistic failure, claiming that the hero's despair and emotional responses do not adequately reflect the gravity of the circumstances that provoke them.
Eliot established the 'theory of impersonal poetry,' which dismissed excessive emotionalism in favor of a measured impact on the reader He emphasized the importance of distancing oneself from personal emotions while crafting poetry For readers, Eliot advocated for introspection, careful analysis, and absorbing the emotional essence of the work.
The Moscow-Tartu school of structural poetics, led by the late Yuri Lotman, is a pivotal branch of structuralism that emphasizes a text-centered approach Esteemed scholars such as Vyatcheslav Ivanov, Vladimir Toporov, Boris Uspensky, Alexander Pyatigorsky, and Elizar Meletinsky also contribute significantly to this influential academic movement.
Suggested plan for text analysis
1 Preliminary information about the text under interpretation Say if it is a complete text or an excerpt; ascertain its genre Specify its themes, ideas, problems, conflicts
The composition of a text can exhibit various significant peculiarities, such as its simplicity or complexity, which may involve multiple protagonists and intricate plotlines It can be scenic, focusing on vivid imagery, or dynamic, emphasizing action and movement The narrative structure may be chronological, following a linear timeline, or kaleidoscopic, presenting events in a non-linear fashion Additionally, the text may utilize contrasts to highlight themes or character differences The mode of narration can be in the first person, providing a personal perspective, or in the third person, offering a broader view of the story.
Focus on highlighting only the most significant features of the subject Whenever applicable, support your claims with textual evidence and clearly explain the impact of each feature.
2 Text interpretation This part of your analysis should be the longest Combine retelling with stylistic analysis
The plot of the text can be analyzed by identifying its key components: the exposition introduces the setting and characters, followed by the entanglement that develops the conflict The build-up of action escalates tensions leading to the climax, where the main conflict reaches its peak, and finally, the denouement resolves the story's conflicts and ties up loose ends If the text is a complete fiction piece, it’s essential to check for any missing or reversed elements within these parts In the case of an excerpt from a larger work, one should identify distinct sense blocks that often align with the traditional plot structure, ensuring a coherent narrative flow.
The suggested plan and cliches for text analysis are valuable tools for beginners interpreting their first texts Over time, individuals can develop personalized strategies and meta-language for their analyses While initial interpretations do not require strict adherence to these plans or cliches, it is essential to maintain the essence and wording of the original text Approach the text from within rather than viewing it from above, ensuring that your analysis interprets rather than merely retells Remember that while sense and emotion are paramount, inadequate wording can diminish their impact Additionally, consider how the action unfolds, whether it reaches a climax, and whether the plot structure is open or closed.
In examining the plot in detail, it is essential to identify the key expressive means and stylistic devices utilized in each section Each device serves a specific function, enhancing the narrative's depth and emotional resonance By discussing the factual information first, followed by the sense it conveys and the expressive means employed, we can appreciate how these elements work together to create a lasting impression on the reader This structured approach not only clarifies the significance of each stylistic choice but also enriches our understanding of the overall impact of the narrative.
When analyzing a psychological text, it is beneficial to begin by examining the protagonists and their conflicts Focus on the characters' physical appearances, psychological profiles, and their attitudes towards events and one another Determine how these characters are depicted, whether through direct descriptions or indirect portrayals via dialogue and actions Uncover the nature of their conflicts, including both obvious and underlying causes, as well as potential consequences that arise from these tensions.
The author's style is characterized by distinct syntactical, lexical, morphological, and phonetic features that serve specific purposes in the text For instance, the use of slang and baby talk effectively captures the idiolect of certain characters, adding authenticity to their voices Additionally, literary devices such as alliteration and paronomasia enhance the rhythmic quality of the narrative, creating a more engaging reading experience These stylistic choices not only enrich the text but also contribute to the overall thematic depth and character development.
The text intricately weaves several key themes, including love, social antagonism, and isolation, which are conveyed through symbolic details and carefully chosen language The implicit subtext reveals deeper layers of meaning, suggesting a critique of societal norms and personal relationships These leitmotifs are created through recurring imagery and nuanced expressions that evoke emotional responses, highlighting the complexities of human experience By examining the text's implications, one can uncover multiple layers that enrich its overall significance, revealing a profound commentary on morality and the human condition.
Comment on the author's skill and the literary merits of the text in general Formulate your personal impression from the text.
It must be grounded on the synthesis — interrelation of sense of different parts.
Suggested cliches for text analysis
1) The story / excerpt under analysis (interpretation) was written by / belongs to the pen of / is the work by the famous / prominent / renowned / controversial English / American writer of the … century…
2) The text under interpretation belongs to the genre of narrative prose, in particular, to the form of short story / is an excerpt from the novel by…
3) The story features / highlights / focuses on the… The subject matter of the story is…
The author confronts the complex and enduring issue of the generation gap, exploring its implications on relationships between fathers and sons Through a thoughtful analysis, he seeks to uncover solutions to this timeless challenge, shedding light on the social inequities that often arise within familial dynamics.
The author passionately denounces and supports various issues, using this writing as a platform to protest against and express concern about significant matters Through this piece, he seeks to communicate his vision and impart an important message to the reader.
6) The action takes place / The scene is set / laid ( in the mid 1960’s / in post-war Britain) / The setting of the story is (Victorian England)
The narrative centers on a significant event in the life of the protagonist, detailing their remarkable journey and the pivotal moments that shaped their experiences It explores a specific period in their life, highlighting the dramatic transformations and challenges they faced along the way.
The article discusses the significance of third-person narration, which is delivered from the perspective of an omniscient narrator This narrative style is crucial as it broadens the reader's perspective, allowing for an objective understanding of the events unfolding in the story.
9) The plot of the story is quite simple / intricate / has one line
10) The plot has a closed structure, since all the constituent parts are present here The plot has an open structure, because it lacks climax (denouement)
11) In the exposition we are presented with…The exposition gives us a portrayal of… (e.g the bleak life of urban clerks)
12) The entanglement of the plot comes with (+ Gerund, Noun) / begins when (+ clause) The build-up of the action begins with… / when…
13) As the action develops / unfolds / builds up / the collision between the characters begins
14) As the action develops the tension / suspense / the reader’s emotion is worked up
15) The action drags a little at first / picks up from the very start / slows down when… By and by the pace of the narration quickens / becomes brisk
16) The climax of the story falls on the characters’ final conversation / is built up by the previous developments
17) The action culminates in + Noun, Gerund… The action comes to a head when…
18) The highlight / high point of the story is the scene where
19) The culminating episode of the story is when…
20) The denouement, bringing the action to a close, falls on the final passage, where…
21) The action comes to a tragic (unexpected, comical) denouement / outcome
22) The story has a decidedly happy (upbeat) / unhappy (downbeat) ending, as
23) The narrative abounds in bookish words / The narration is done in plain language
The story features skillful characterization, with the author adeptly depicting the heroes through both direct and indirect methods Readers will encounter a rich portrayal of characters that enhances the narrative depth.
25) The use of swear-words (educated literary language / juvenile slang / child language, / language of the underworld) enhances the realistic sounding / ring of the story
26) The protagonists’ parlance in the text also serves to characterize them The swear-words (elegant language, etc.) bring out such features in the protagonist as: …
27) To characterize this hero, the author aptly uses such stylistic devices as…
28) These words / devices reflect the overall ironic / sarcastic treatment of this character by the writer
29) The key of this description is ironical / sarcastic
30) This dramatic / interior dialogue brings about a peculiar effect
31) What strikes / leaps to / bursts into the reader’s eye is… used for the purpose of…
32) Note / observe / mark / witness the use of…, which serves the purpose of…
33) It is worth mentioning / worthy of mention that…/ regard must be paid to the fact that… / it is noteworthy that…
34) Throughout the text the author employs…
35) Thanks to these stylistic devices one gets the impression of / that…
36) This stylistic device (trope, figure of speech) conveys the idea of / that…
37) The employment of this device suggests that / is suggestive of the fact that…
38) It becomes manifest from this phrase that…
39) From this sentence we may infer that (…we may draw the following inference: )
40) The underlying idea / implication of the story appears to be…
41) One may draw far-reaching inferences from this text.
42) We may identify / specify / single out at least three layers of sense here: psychological, social and philosophic The first layer of sense appears to be…
43) The message of the story seems to be… The ideas derived from this text are that…
Fiction texts and samples of their
Alfred Edgar Coppard, born in 1878, was an English short-story writer and poet who received basic education in Folkestone and Brighton before starting an apprenticeship as a tailor at the age of nine In 1907, he relocated to Oxford to work as a clerk at the Eagle Ironworks, a position he held until he became a full-time writer in 1919 Known for his warm and friendly demeanor, Coppard skillfully blended sophistication with lyrical power in his writing His first poetry collection, "Hips and Haws," was published in 1922, but he is primarily celebrated for his short story collections, starting with "Adam and Eve."
Pinch Me (1921) and included The Black Dog and Other Stories
(1923), Fishmonger’s Fiddle: Tales (1925) and The Field of
Mustard (1926) They contain tales as diverse as the rich and mysterious ‘Dusky Ruth’ and the simple ‘The Presser’ Coppard’s works often convey the flavour of the English countryside
"Tribute" is a pamphlet that effectively exposes and satirizes social evils, utilizing contrast as its foundational literary device.
In the town of Braddle, two honest young men, Nathan Regent and Tony Vassall, worked together at the local spinning mills and both courted a beautiful but impoverished girl named Patience Nathan, known for his steady and dignified demeanor, contrasted sharply with the carefree and charming Tony, who quickly won Patience's affection While Nathan's virtues were rooted in his steadfast nature, Tony's lightheartedness and good looks captured Patience's heart, illustrating how different qualities can influence love and relationships over time.
Tony rushed into a tender relationship with Patience, highlighting that while silence can be valuable, it is often challenging to navigate in the realm of romance Dignity falls short of the power of faith, as it cannot inspire significant change, appealing only to those in positions of authority like bank managers and bishops.
So Patience married Tony Vassall and Nathan turned his attention to other things, among them to a girl who had a neat little fortune — and Nathan married that
Braddle is a large hill dotted with small houses and a vital stream that powers a crucial mill, which is the heart of the community While Tony continues his steady work at the mill, Nathan, driven by his ambitious wife, quickly rises through the ranks to become a manager Over time, Nathan's dedication leads him to become the sole manager after his colleague's death, allowing him to amass significant wealth and eventually purchase the entire mill Meanwhile, Tony remains in his long-held position, now with a growing family, illustrating the contrasting paths of stability and ambition in Braddle.
The Regents, residing near Braddle, have a daughter named Olive, who is the same age as Nancy Olive is exceptionally beautiful and received her education at a local school, commuting by bicycle until she turned eighteen.
During a tumultuous period, the country initiated a disastrous war campaign that placed immense pressure on Braddle, demanding significant sacrifices from its people The Braddle mills, strained beyond their limits, tirelessly produced the essential resources for the war As a result, most residents of Braddle became gaunt and despondent from the relentless labor In stark contrast, the Regents experienced a dramatic increase in wealth, their eyes gleaming with prosperity, completely oblivious to the struggles faced by the majority.
‘In times like these,’ declared Nathan's wife, ‘we must help our country still more, still more we must help; let us lend our money to the country.’
The Regents invested their wealth in their country, receiving tribute in return As their financial resources grew, they increased their support for the nation, even lending the tribute back to the government, which allowed them to earn additional tribute.
In challenging times, the community of Braddle recognized the urgent need for more manpower to sustain its vitality Nathan took a seat on the Tribunal, understanding that the operation of the mills was crucial for the town's survival.
‘What can we do to help our country?’ asked Tony Vassall of his master, ‘we have no money to lend.’
‘No?’ was the reply ‘But you can give your strong son Dan.’ Tony gave his son Dan to the country
‘Good-bye, dear son,’ said his father, and his brother and his sister Nancy said ‘Good-bye.’ His mother kissed him
Dan was killed in battle; his sister Nancy took his place at the mill
In a little while the neighbours said to Tony Vassall:
‘What a fine strong son is your young Albert Edward!’ And Tony gave his son Albert Edward to the country
‘Good-bye, dear son, ‘said his father; his sister kissed him, his mother wept on his breast
Albert Edward was killed in battle; his mother took his place at the mill
The relentless war continued, claiming countless lives, including that of Tony Vassall, who was killed in battle Patience, left a widow, received a pension and an encouragement to remarry, but ultimately succumbed to grief During this tumultuous time, many perished, and Nathan and his wife amassed great wealth, only to die from overindulgence Their daughter, Olive, inherited a substantial fortune and became a Trustee.
The Trustee continued to lend money to the country, which in turn sent substantial interest payments to Olive as a tribute for her parents' enduring kindness After the war, the country urged Braddle to work harder than ever to ensure these tribute payments could continue, as failure to do so would jeopardize Braddle's very existence Recognizing the gravity of the situation, the people of Braddle committed themselves to increased effort and dedication.
Nancy Vassall married a brave war veteran who worked as a mill hand like her father, and they had two sons, Daniel and Albert Edward Olive, on the other hand, married a man of high status, despite his unremarkable appearance characterized by a small sharp nose However, his prominent red cheeks overshadowed this feature, much like hills concealing a barn in a valley Olive resided in an opulent mansion with numerous servants to assist her in raising her daughter, Mercy, who also inherited the small sharp nose and round red cheeks.
Each year, Olive hosted a grand supper for her employees and their families, celebrating the return of war survivors with six hours of feasting, music, and dancing During the event, she delivered a heartfelt speech, emphasizing their shared responsibilities to Braddle and the nation's duty, while gracefully omitting any mention of the country's gratitude towards her, as it would have seemed boastful and inappropriate.
‘These are grave times for our country,’ Olive would declare,year after year; ‘her responsibilities are enormous we must all put our shoulders to the wheel.’
Each year, a workman would deliver a heartfelt speech, expressing gratitude to Olive for sustaining the essence of Braddle, invoking both spiritual and worldly blessings upon her One memorable year, Nancy's husband spoke with particular eloquence, as their sons had just started working at the mill, with Nancy and her children applauding enthusiastically Olive felt deeply moved by these moments, recognizing a disconnect between herself and the community, yet longing to remain connected to their lives and share in their everyday joys However, she ultimately refrained from doing so.
In a moment of reflection, she expressed to her daughter, Mercy, her profound happiness in caring for the community, emphasizing their role as agents of God's creation She noted the continuity of life at Braddle, where the cycle of generations persists—older individuals pass away, while the young grow, marry, and sustain the community This enduring process, she believed, would continue indefinitely, ensuring that the heart of Braddle would never cease to beat.
Texts for independent analysis
William Golding, born in 1911 in St Columb Minor, Cornwall, was educated at Marlborough Grammar School and Brasenose College, Oxford An accomplished writer, he produced a variety of works including witty and profound essays, radio plays for the BBC, short stories in prominent magazines, and a full-length stage comedy Although he published several poetry collections, Golding gained widespread recognition with his novel "Lord of the Flies," released in 1954, which solidified his reputation alongside his later works, including "The Inheritors."
(1955), Pincher Martin (1956), The Brass Butterfly (a play,
1958), Free Fall (1959), The Spire (1964), and The Pyramid
William Golding's Lord of the Flies has been widely hailed as a modern classic and has enjoyed phenomenal popularity
The book starts romantically Several bunches of boys are being evacuated during a war Their plane is shot down but the
A group of boys survives a plane crash and finds themselves on an uninhabited island, where they explore the jungle and enjoy their newfound freedom Despite the unlikely circumstances, their behavior is relatable and authentic, reflecting the author's deep understanding of youth, shaped by both personal empathy and extensive teaching experience.
Upon landing on the island, the boys initially revel in the absence of adults, but soon face challenges that escalate into chaos As they grapple with the need for order, they descend into savagery, marked by violence and murder, while a few struggle to maintain their civilized behavior The book explores the theme that societal flaws stem from inherent human nature, emphasizing that the moral fabric of a society is shaped by the ethical character of its individuals rather than the political systems in place.
The title "Lord of the Flies" symbolizes the embodiment of evil, drawing from its translation of Beelzebub, which represents the Devil in Judeo-Christian contexts In the novel, the boys' descent into savagery is marked by their act of impaling a pig's head on a pole as an offering to the 'beast,' highlighting their primal instincts This pig's head, covered in flies and referred to as the Lord of the Flies, symbolizes society's fears and the darker aspects of human nature Golding illustrates that the demonic force within humanity is typically restrained by reason, but in the absence of societal order, it manifests in barbaric violence.
The selection given below presents the scene of murder of one of the boys (Simon) who was erroneously taken for the
‘beast’ by his madly frightened and excited companions
[…] Evening was come, not with calm beauty but with the threat of violence
Ralph embodies the struggle for responsibility in a chaotic world, recognizing that the absence of order leads to savagery and moral disarray He strives to create a rational society, symbolized by the conch shell he discovers on the beach, which represents power and structured dialogue In contrast, Jack emerges as Ralph's rival, embracing his primal instincts as a hunter and ultimately becoming the tyrannical leader of his tribe Jack acknowledges the existence of 'the beast' and even performs sacrifices to it, positioning himself as the High Priest of Beelzebub, the embodiment of chaos and darkness.
Henry offered him a shell to drink from, as he observed Piggy and Ralph through the rough edge The strength in his brown forearms signified power, while a sense of authority lingered over him, whispering in his ear like a chattering ape.
The boys arranged themselves in rows on the grass, while Ralph and Piggy remained slightly lower on the soft sand Jack, momentarily disregarding them, focused on the seated boys, lowering his mask and gesturing with a spear.
‘Who is going to join my tribe?’
Ralph made a sudden movement that became a stumble. Some of the boys turned towards him
‘I gave you food,’ said Jack, ‘and my hunters will protect you from the beast Who will join my tribe?’
‘I'm chief,’ said Ralph, ‘because you chose me And we were going to keep the fire going Now you run after food —’
‘You ran yourself!’ shouted Jack ‘Look at that bone in your hands!’
‘I said you were hunters That was your job.’
‘Who'll join my tribe and have fun?’
‘I'm chief,’ said Ralph tremulously ‘And what about the fire? And I've got the conch’
‘You haven't got it with you,’ said Jack, sneering ‘You left it behind See, clever? And the conch doesn't count at this end of the island —’
All at once the thunder struck Instead of the dull boom there was a point of impact in the explosion
‘The conch counts here too,’ said Ralph, ‘and all over the island.’
‘What are you going to do about it then?’
Ralph examined the ranks of boys There was no help in them and he looked away, confused and sweating Piggy whispered
‘Who'll join my tribe?’
‘I'll blow the conch,’ said Ralph, breathlessly, ‘and call an assembly.’
‘Come away There's going to be trouble And we've had our meat.’
A sudden flash of bright light pierced through the forest, followed by a thunderous roar that caused a young child to whimper As heavy raindrops began to fall, they created distinct sounds upon impact, adding to the atmosphere of the moment.
Ralph warned that a storm was approaching, predicting heavy rain similar to when they first arrived He challenged others by questioning their preparedness, asking about their shelters and plans to handle the impending weather.
The hunters anxiously gazed at the sky, flinching as raindrops began to fall A sense of restlessness swept over the boys, causing them to sway and move aimlessly The flickering light intensified, and the thunderclaps grew increasingly overwhelming Meanwhile, the younger children started to run around in a panic, screaming in fear.
Jack leapt on to the sand
‘Do our dance! Come on! Dance!’
He stumbled through the thick sand towards the rocky area beyond the fire, with the boys following him excitedly In the dark, stormy air illuminated by flashes of lightning, Roger playfully charged at Jack, pretending to be a pig The hunters armed themselves with spears, while the cooks grabbed spits and others picked up clubs made of firewood, creating a rhythmic chant as they moved in a circle.
65 littlun — stands for little one in children's speech
As Roger acted out the fear of the pig, the littluns energetically circled outside, while Piggy and Ralph, feeling the weight of the looming sky, found themselves drawn to this chaotic yet somewhat safe environment They felt a sense of relief in touching the brown backs of the fence that contained the fear, making it seem manageable.
‘Kill the beast! Cut his throat! Spill his blood!’ […]
A sudden blue-white flash illuminated the sky, followed by a deafening explosion that sent the littluns into a panic They screamed and scattered, desperately trying to escape the forest's edge, causing one to break through the protective circle formed by the biguns in his sheer terror.
A dark, uncertain creature emerged from the forest, its presence accompanied by a piercing scream that echoed like a cry of anguish As it stumbled into the horseshoe shape, the atmosphere thickened with tension and fear.
In a chaotic frenzy, the chant of "Kill the beast! Cut his throat! Spill his blood!" echoed relentlessly, drowning out all reason Amidst the turmoil, Simon desperately cried out about a dead man on the hill, his voice lost in the overwhelming noise The scene was marked by a persistent blue-white scar, symbolizing the ongoing violence and madness that consumed them.