Why We Do Research full

Why We Do Research Why We Do Research Chapter 1 Ordinary Versus Systematic Biased Question A question that leads to a specific response or excludes a certain group Nonscientific thinking leads to aski.

Why We Do Research

Chapter 1

Ordinary Versus Systematic

 Biased Question: A question that leads to a specific response or excludes a certain group

 Nonscientific thinking leads to asking questions that are slanted in a particular direction

 Limited Sample: can only make conclusions about the group that was surveyed

 Tendency is to generalize to all people

 Results only as good as the way the question was framed and the responding sample

 Selective Attention: Putting emphasis on what

is important to ‘us’

 Need to consider what we perceive and what

we retain

 Difficulty comes in overgeneralization, based

on a few observations

Scientific Thinking

 It is common to think about in terms of questions, observations, data, hypotheses, testing, and theories These are formal parts

of the scientific method

 Most important parts of scientific thinking:

 using empirical evidence

 practicing logical reasoning

 possessing a skeptical attitude

Empirical Evidence

 Empirical evidence: evidence that one see,

hear, touch, taste, or smell

 It is evidence that others can experience

 It is repeatable

 Another name for empirical evidence is natural evidence: the evidence found in nature

Authoritarian Evidence

 Authoritarian evidence: what authorities (people,

books, billboards, television commercials, etc.) tell you to believe

 The most common alternative to empirical evidence

 Education relies almost entirely upon authoritarian evidence Teachers, instructors, and professors are generally considered to be reliable and trustworthy authorities, but even they should be questioned on occasion.

 Logic allows us to reason correctly, but it is a complex topic and not easily learned

 Logic is a skill or discipline that must be learned within a formal educational environment

 Often logical reasoning requires a struggle:

 emotions are not evidence

 feelings are not facts

 subjective beliefs are not substantive beliefs

 Skepticism: constant questioning of your

beliefs and conclusions

 Good researchers constantly examine the evidence, arguments, and reasons for their beliefs

 Question the truth and reliability of the knowledge claims of others and the knowledge you already possess

Scientific Thinking

 Scientific and critical thinking require that one reject blind faith, authority, revelation, and subjective human feelings as a basis for reliable belief and knowledge

Purposes of Research

 Exploratory

 gaining some familiarity with a topic, discovering some of its main dimensions, and possibly planning more structured research

 Descriptive

 Political poll predicting who will win an election

 Anthropologist’s ethnographic account of a preliterate tribe

 Census Bureau’s report on number of Americans

 Explanatory

 Take it one step further

 Evaluate specific outcomes and provide explanations for why and how a particular result occurred

Research Methods

 “In practice, survey research methods, like many specific scientific laboratory techniques, remain more of an art than a science.”

 Lauman, etal (1994:57)

Let’s do a little group work

 Compare/Contrast everyday experiences

and scientific thinking

 Does correlation imply causation? Explain

 What research method do you find most

useful, related to your research interest? Why?

Cause and Effect

 Causal Research:

 objective is to determine which variable might

be causing a certain behavior

 Correlation is a measure of association that tests whether a relationship exists between two variables

 it is never possible to prove causality, but only

to show to what degree it is probable

Establish ‘causal relationship’

1) Time order: The cause must have occurred before the effect

2) Co-variation (statistical association): Changes in the value of

the independent variable must be accompanied by changes

in the value of the dependent variable

3) Rationale: There must be a logical and compelling

explanation for why these two variables are related

4) Non-spuriousness: It must be established that the

independent variable X, and only X, was the cause of changes in the dependent variable Y; rival explanations must

be ruled out

Correlation Does Not Imply Causation

 There is a statistical correlation over months of the year between ice cream consumption and the number of assaults Does this mean ice cream manufacturers are responsible for crime?

 No! The correlations occurs statistically because the hot temperatures of summer cause both ice cream consumption and assaults to increase

 Thus, correlation does NOT imply causation Other factors besides cause and effect can create an observed correlation.

Choosing Methods

 Must consider the pros and cons

 What are you studying?

 Time?

 Cost?

 Set of assumptions

 Philosophical questions

 Do not say ‘I want to do survey research, but I

am not sure what I am studying’

 ALWAYS start with a Research Question

Class Focus and other Choices

 Focus will be on quantitative survey methods

 Other choices include:

 Experimental

 Qualitative Methods

 Content Analysis/Archival Research

 Quantitative Methods