Everything you need to ace chemistry

CHEMISTRY Co p y r i g h t © 2020 b y Wo r kman Pu b l i s h in g Co , In c By p u r c h a s i n g t h i s w o r k b o o k , t h e b u y er i s p erm i t t ed to r ep r o d u ce p ages f o r c la s s.

CHEMISTRY

B y p u r c h a s in g th is w o r k b o o k , th e b u y er is p er m it t ed to r ep r o d u ce p a ges fo r

cla s s r o o m u s e o n ly , b u t n o t fo r co m m er cial r es ale P lea s e co n t a ct th e p u b lis h er

fo r p er m is s io n to r ep r o d u ce p a ges fo r a n en t ir e s ch o o l o r s ch o o l d is tr ict With th e

p r em iu m s a n d s ales p r o m o t io n s , a s w ell a s fo r fu n d -ra is in g o r ed u ca t io n al u s e

Sp ecial ed it io n s o r b o o k excer p t s ca n als o b e cr ea t ed to s p ecifica t io n

F o r d et a ils , co n t a ct th e Sp ecial Sales Dir ecto r a t th e a d d r es s b elo w

WO RKM AN , BRAIN QU EST , a n d BIG FAT N O T E-BO O K a r e

r egis t er ed tra d em a r k s o f Wo r k m a n P u b lis h in g Co , In c

F ir s t p r in t in g Sep t em b er 2020

W O R K M A N P U B L I S H I N G

N E W Y O R K

CHEMISTRY

EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO ACE CHEMISTRY

c on c e pt s pr e s e n t e d in an e as y - t o- u n de r s t an d, organ ize d

way Explanat ions ab ou t s t at es and ph ases of mat t er, atomic

s t r u c t u r e an d t h e or y , t h e pe r i odi c t ab le , c h e mi c al r e ac t i on s ,

and more are all present ed in a way t hat makes sense

You don’t h ave to b e s u pe r s mar t or a c h e mis t r y love r to

u n de r s t an d an d e n joy t h e c on c e pt s i n t h i s b ook Th i n k of

t h i s b ook as c h e mi s t r y f or t h e r e s t of u s

To help keep t hings organized:

• Impor t an t voc ab u lar y w ords ar e h igh ligh t e d i n YELLOW

and c learly defined

• Relat e d t e r ms an d c on c e pt s ar e w r i t t e n i n B LU E IN K

• Examples and c alc u lat ions ar e c lear ly s t epped ou t

• Con c e pt s ar e s u ppor t e d b y e xplan at ion s , illu s t rat ion s ,

UNIT 1:

BASICS OF CHEMISTRY

1

1 Int rodu c t ion to Ch emis t ry 2

2 Condu c t ing Experiment s 16

3 Lab Report s and

Evaluat ing Result s 27

15 Valence Shell Electron Pair

UNIT 10:

ACIDS AND BASES

383

28 Propert ies of Acids and Bases 384

29 pH Scale and Calculat ions 393

30 Conjugat e Acids and Bases 405

31 Tit rat ions 415

UNIT 11:

CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

423

32 Chemical Equilib rium 424

33 Le Chât elier’s Principle 442

UNIT 12:

THERMODYNAMICS

451

36 Reac t ion Rat es 481

Anything that occupies space and has mass.

Eve r y t h in g y ou s e e , t ou c h , h e ar , s mell, an d t as t e involves

c h e mis t r y an d c h e mic als , w h ic h ar e all mat t e r Ch e mis t r y

inve s t igat e s t h e prope r t ie s of mat t e r , h ow t h ey int eract,

an d h ow t h ey c h an ge

F or e xample , w h e n you ’r e

making a h amb u rger or

doing any kind of c ooking,

you are mixing ingredient s

-t h e me a-t (ma-t -t e r ) , mas h in g

(applying a forc e), and grilling

(changing t he t emperature)

u nt il you get a hamb u rger

(a new sub s t anc e)

t h e c r e at ion of mat e r ials t o c le an u p an d pr eve n t pollu t ion

3

Ch e mis t r y h as diffe r e n t DISCIPLINES , or b ran c h e s Th e

five main b ranc h es are :

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

S c ie n t is t s fin d evide n c e b y c on du c t in g e xpe r ime n t s an d

mak in g ob s e r vat ion s

Th e proc e s s of u s ing evide nc e from ob s e r vat ion and

experiments to create an explanation is called SCIENTIFIC

Th e s c i e n t i s t t r i e s t o c olle c t all of t h e pos s i b le in for mat ion

t h at r elat e s t o t h e i nve s t i gat i on of t h at qu e s t i on b y doi n g

B A C K G R O U N D R E S E A R C H , making observations, and conducting

e xpe r i me n t s

Organic vs Inorganic

Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen bonds

Most inorganic compounds do not contain carbon

5

of pas t s c i e n t i s t s t o c r e at e a H YPOTH ES I S, a pos s i b le

e xplan at ion for an ob s e r vat ion or prob le m S c ie n t is t s t e s t

t h e i r h y pot h e s e s b y mak i n g OBS ERVAT ION S and c ompar ing

t h e m t o t h e i r PRED ICT ION S , gu esses of wh at migh t h appen

b as e d on pr eviou s ob s e r vat ions Ob s e r vat ions c an r e qu ir e

u s in g t h e s e n s e s - t h e w ay s ome t h in g looks , s mells , fe els ,

or s ou n ds - to desc r ib e an event Ob ser vat ions c an b e

QU A N T ITAT IVE , made i n t h e for m of me as u r e me n t s

Th ey c an als o b e QU ALITAT IVE ,

desc rib ing c olor, odor, shape,

or s ome OTHER PHYS ICAL

• answers multiple questions

• no fixed order of steps

Scientific Method

• answers one question

• a step-by-step process done

in the same order each time

• results must becommunicated

S c i e n t i s t s oft e n fi n d t h e ms elve s c omi n g b ac k t o t h e s ame

qu e s t ion s again an d again

Types of Scientific Investigations

S c i e n t i s t s u s e PURE SCIENCE an d APPLIED SCIENCE

t o c on du c t s c ie n t ific i nve s t i gat i on s

PURE SCIENCE

The search for knowledge or facts

It uses theories and predictions to

understand nature Geology is an

example of pure science

APPLIED SCIENCE

Using knowledge in a practical way Related

to engineering and technology The development

of a rocket is an example of applied science

A MODEL is a represent at ion of a part ic u lar situ at ion u sing

somet hing else to represent it It allows t he sc ient is t to easily

observe and gather data There are different kinds of models

Calc u lat ion s involving a part ic u lar

mat h e mat ic al e qu at ion ; for example

an e qu at i on of a li n e

9

AND LAWS

Aft er c omplet ing many experiment s or developing many

models, scient is t s are able to use t he result s to develop ideas

to explain how and why things happen A scientific idea s t art s

as a h ypot h esis t h at h as not yet b een proven to b e t ru e

or false

On c e a h y pot h e s is h as b e e n prove n (t h rou gh t e s t s an d

experiment s) , sc ient is t s will develop a THEORY

Th e or ie s c an b e prove n or r e je c t e d Th ey c an als o b e

c h ange d and improved as more fac t s are gat h ered t h rou gh

e xpe r ime n t at ion or modelin g

Th e or ie s ar e t h e b as is for s c ie n t ific k n ow le dge Th ey

ar e a w ay t o t ak e c olle c t e d fac t s an d pu t t h e m t o

prac t ic al u se

THEORY

A proposed explanation that is based on an examination

of facts Facts can be observed and measured

A theory is a scientist’s explanation of the facts

S c ie nt ific law s de s c r ib e w h at h appe ns in natu r e

F or e xample , t h e F r e nc h c h e mis t A N TOIN E- L A U REN T

LAVOISIER w rot e t h e LAW OF CON SERVAT ION OF

L a w o f C o n s e r v a t i o n o f M a s s

11

A rule based on observation of a process in nature

that behaves the same way, each and every time

A LAW describes WHAT happens

A THEOR Y describes WHY something happens

t h e s t u dy of radi oac t i vi t y an d t h e de c ay of at oms

4 S c ie n t is t s approac h t h e ir inve s t igat ion s e it h e r b y

sear c h ing for pu r e sc ienc e (t h rou gh knowledge and

fac t s) or disc overing applied sc ienc e (u sing knowledge

in a prac t ic al way)

5 Th e b as i c s t e ps of s c i e n t i fi c in qu ir y ar e : as k a qu e s t i on ,

do b ac k grou n d r e s e ar c h , mak e a h y pot h e s is , t e s t t h e

h y pot h e s is , an aly ze r e s u l t s , draw a c on c lu s ion , an d s h ar e

t h e r e s u l t s If t h e h y p ot h e s i s is proven false, anot h er

s t e p is t o c r e at e a n ew h y pot h e s is

ob je c t t h at allow s t h e s c ie n t is t t o e as ily ob s e r ve an d

gat h e r dat a

7 A t h e or y i s a s c i e n t i s t ’ s e xplan at i on of t h e fac t s ,

e it h e r me as u r e d or ob s e r ve d A law is a r u le b ased on

ob s e r vat ion of a proc e s s in natu r e t h at b e h ave s t h e

s ame w ay, eve r y s ingle t ime

15

5 CONDUCT t h e e xpe r ime n t

You can have a CON T ROL L ED EXPERI M EN T b y r u n n i n g t h e

e xpe r ime n t mor e t h an on c e : fi r s t w i t h ou t c h an gi n g an y

fac tor s (t h is e xpe r ime nt is c alle d t h e CONTROL ) and

c an al t e r y ou r e xpe r ime n t ’s

r e s u l t s - a c ont rolled exper iment

allow s y ou t o t e s t t h e influ enc e

D ifferent variab les have different roles

goldfish aft er t h e pr eviou s one

h as die d Th e c las s c ome s u p

w i t h a h y p ot h e s i s t h at

t h e t e ac h e r ’ s goldfi s h is not

ge t t i n g t h e r i gh t amou n t

of food Th ey devis e an

e xpe r ime n t for t h e t e ac h e r t o t e s t t h is fac t or alon e ,

h oldin g all ot h e r var iab le s (t y pe of fis h t an k , s ize of fis h

t an k , w at e r qu alit y , w at e r t e mpe rat u r e , food t y pe , an d

I S A C C U R A T E

A N D P R E C I S E

N O T A C C U R A T E

B U T I S P R E C I S E

Good dat a is s pe c ific an d de t aile d Th ey c on s is t of b ot h

quant it at ive and qualit at ive ob servat ions M easurement s mus t

b e as ACCURATE an d PRECISE as pos s ib le M ake s u r e

t hat you measure t hings carefully Have a not eb ook ready to

record everyt hing as you see it Keep your not es neat so t hat

t hey are easy to review Unreliab le

(or u nreadab le) dat a are u seless

BAR GRAPHS pr e s e n t dat a as b ar s of var y in g h e igh t s or

l e n gt h s T h i s is an easy way to c ompare different variab les

The t aller, or longer, t he b ar, t he larger t he numb er

Aft e r c olle c t in g dat a, y ou c an pr e s e n t i t in many different,

more quant it at ive ways For example :

LINE GRAPHS

var iab le s Th e independent variab le i s p l o t t e d o n t h e x- axis

(t h e h or izon t al lin e ) , an d t h e dependent variab le is on t h e

y- axis (t h e ve r t ic al line ) Eac h axis h as a s c ale to s h ow t h e

in t e r vals of t h e me as u r e me n t s S c ale s ar e don e in even

An aly zin g dat a is c ompar in g an d e xamin in g t h e in for mat ion

c olle c t e d Th i s i s s ome t h i n g t h at all s c i e n t i s t s n e e d t o do t o

de t e r mi n e t h e ou t c ome of t h e i r e xpe r i me n t D at a is usually

s h ow n in t h e for m of a diagram or graph You c ompar e

t h e var iab le s t h at ar e b e in g t e s t e d again s t t h e on e s t h at

ar e b eing kept t h e same It is i mpor t an t t o c ompar e y ou r

dat a ac c u rat ely s o t h at you c an de t e r mine e xac t ly w h at

h appe ne d du r ing you r e xpe r ime nt Th at w ay you w ill b e ab le

to r epeat t h e exper iment if needed

Wh i c h t y p e o f gr a p h i s b e s t t o s h o w t h e d a t a ?

example, an inc rease from 01 to 0 6, y ou c an u s e a lin e

graph Th is for mat makes small differ enc es mor e visib le

wh ole, u se a c ir c le graph F or example, if you need to rec ord

h ow mu c h of an h ou r w as s pe nt on var iou s t as ks , t h is for mat

would b e good to use

pe r iod of t ime , or grou ps of n u mb e r s , a b ar graph migh t b e

b es t F or example, if you h ave different c ars and you want

t o c ompar e t h e ir t op s pe e ds again s t e ac h ot h e r

23

You h ave reac h ed t h e end of you r experiment D id t h e

r e s u l t s s u ppor t y ou r h y pot h e s is ? Wh y or w h y n ot ? Eve n

i f y ou r r e s u l t s di d n ot s u ppor t y ou r h y pot h e s i s , y ou c an

s t ill le ar n from t h e m It is impor t an t t o e xplain in y ou r

c on c lu s i on w h y y ou t h i n k y ou r h y pot h e s i s w as w ron g

Were t here sourc es of experiment al error, or did t he

proc edure need to b e c hanged?

S ome t i me s , t h e c on c lu s i on s ar e n ’ t immediat ely ob viou s and

you will h ave to INFER , or u s e ob s e r vat ions and fac t s

t o r e ac h a c on c lu s ion ab ou t s ome t h in g y ou may n ot h ave

di r e c t ly w i t n e s s e d

For example, if you w ant to find ou t w h at a Tyrannos au r u s

r e x at e , y ou migh t ob s e r ve t h e t y pe s of fos s ilize d droppin gs

When you need to infer,

it can help to look atbackground informationand do further research

answers

1 Wh at ar e t h e t w o w ay s t h at dat a c an b e me as u r e d?

2 What graphs c an b e u sed to present dat a?

3 If t h e r e s u l t s from you r e xpe r ime nt don’t s u ppor t you r

h y pot h e s is , w as t h e e xpe r ime n t a failu r e or a s u c c e s s ?

Explain your answer

4 Wh at is t h e diffe r e nc e b e tw e e n b e ing ac c u rat e and

b eing precise?

5 Wh y is i t impor t an t t o c or r e c t ly an aly ze y ou r dat a from

an experiment?

6 You have c ollec t ed dat a t hat shows large c hanges

du r in g a pe r iod of t ime Wh at t y pe of graph w ou ld

y ou u s e for t h is ?

7 Wh en wou ld you u se a line graph ?

25

me as u r e me n t s , or qu alit at ive an d b as e d on t h e

w ay s ome t h in g looks , fe els , s mells , or s ou n ds

2 Th r ee differ ent graph s t h at ar e u sed to pr esent dat a

are line, b ar, and c irc le graphs

3 If t h e r e s u l t s from you r e xpe r ime nt don’t s u ppor t

y ou r h y p ot h e s i s , it doe s n ot n e c e s s ar ily me an t h at y ou r

e xpe r ime nt w as a failu r e S c ie nt is t s c an le ar n from

ever y exper iment If t h e dat a doesn’t su ppor t t h e

h y p ot h e s i s , t h e n y ou c an as k w h y an d t r y t o f i gu r e ou t

any fac tors t h at may h ave affec t ed t h e experiment

4 Ac c u rac y is de t e r min e d u s in g t h e c los e n e s s of t h e

valu e t h at is me as u r e d to a s t andard or know n valu e

Pr e c is ion is de t e r min e d t h rou gh t h e c los e n e s s of t w o or

more measu red valu es to eac h ot h er

5 You need to correct ly analyze your dat a so t hat you can

c ompare your result s to mult iple experiment s if needed

6 A b ar graph w ou ld b e b e s t for t h is dat a

7 If you r dat a sh ows small c h anges over t ime

A t oms , t h e b as i c b u i ldi n g b loc ks of mat t e r , w e r e fi r s t

dis c ove r e d b y t h e Gr e e k ph ilos oph e r D E M O C R I T U S

D e moc r i t u s w as als o t h e fi r s t t o c all

t h e m “ at oms ” JOHN D ALTON adopt ed

D e moc r i t u s ’ s ide as and u s e d t h e m

t o f or m t h e F IRST M OD ERN ATOM IC

M OD EL D al ton s h ar e d h is r e s u l t s

ab ou t at oms an d h ow at oms w e r e

27

t h e at om t o grow an d e xpan d ove r t h e y e ar s t h rou gh t h e

dis c ove r ie s of diffe r e n t s c ie n t is t s

Th e r e ar e man y w ay s t o c ommu n ic at e

you r findings You c an give a s pe e c h ,

wr it e an ar t ic le for a sc ient ific jou r nal,

or give an int erview The firs t s t ep to

communicating your findings i s t o w r i t e

WRITING A LAB REPORT

A lab report is made u p of diffe r e nt par t s :

of t h e q u e s t i on t h at i s b e i n g as k e d or w h y t h e inve s t igat ion

is b e in g don e “ Wh at qu e s t ion am I t r y in g t o an s w e r ? ”

“ What i s t h e pu r pos e of t h i s s t u dy ? ” It c an als o inc lu de any

r e s e ar c h t h at may alr e ady e xis t ab ou t t h e topic

y ou t h in k w ill h appe n i n t h e i nve s t i gat i on an d w h y