Tài liệu municipal solid waste incineration requirements tap23 pdf

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Municipal Solid Waste Incineration

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Municipal Solid

Waste Incineration Requirements for a Successful Project

{©2000 The International Bank for Reconstruction

and Development / Ti WORLD BOSS

L8H Stet, NM

‘Washingtoa, BC 20833, US.A

Allright reserved

“Manufactured in the Unite Sates of America

First printing une 2000

‘This report has been prepared bythe staff ofthe World Bank The judgments expresed do not

necessarily reflect the views of the Bard of Executive Directors or of the governments they represent

‘The material in this publication is copyrighted The World Bank encourages dissemination ofits work snd will normally grant pecmision promptly

Petmission to photocopy items for interal or personal use far the internal or personal use of specific liets, or for educational classroom use i ranted by the World Bank, provided thatthe appropriate fees pid diretly tothe Copyright Cleacance Center, Inc, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 91923, US.A., {clephone 978-750-8800, fax 978-750-4470, Please contact the Copyright Clearance Center before

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Cover photo by unknown

Library of Congres Cataloging in-Publication Data

Rand, 1959

‘ipl solid waste incineration: equicements for a sucesl projet Rand,

J-Haukob, U Marzen

em — (World Bank technical paper no 462))

includes bibliographical references,

TSEN 0-8B13-46617

1 Tocineation Haukobl |, 1944-11 Marae, 1967~ TH, Word Bank

IN Till, V Series,

‘10796357 2000

608.4'4566—de

06088001

Incineration Plant Organization and Management 21

4 Incineration Plant Economics and Finance 25

Project Preparation Phase 33

Project Implementation Phase 36

Socio-Economic Aspects an Stakeholder Participation

Bibliography 41

w Measuring Country Performanceom Heath

Ar Pollution Control Technology 6

APC Systems Overview 74

Induced Draft Fan and Stack 74

5 Incineration Residues 77

Keylssues 77

slg 77

Grate Sittings 78

Boiler and Fly Ash 79

Residues from Dry and Semidry Flue Gas Treatment 79

Sludges from Water Teatment 80

Spent Adsorbent from Dioxin Fters 80

Other Materials 80

6 Operationand Maintenance 83

Keylsues 83

“Typical Plant Organization and Staffing 3

(Crucial Supplies and External Services #5

Training of Workers, Codes of Practice and Occupational Safety and Wealth 85

7 Environmental Impact and Occupational Health 87,

Foreword

Solid waste management isin crisis in many of the

world’s largest urban areas as populations attracted to

cites continues to gro This hs led to ever increasing

quantities of domestic solid waste while space for dis

posal decreases Municipal managers are looking to the

development of sanitary landfills around the periphery

of thie cities as a first solution, However, sting and

preparation ofa landfill requires the acquisition of large

areas a5 well a good day-to-day operation in order t

‘minimize potential negative environmental impacts

Another approach that has recently caught the attention

‘of decision makers is mass burn incineration sila to

systems found inthe OECD countries, However, capital

and operating requirements fr these plans are general-

lyan onder of magnitude greater than required for and-

fill, Projet developers armed with rosy financial fore-

<castscanbe found inall corners af the globe encouraging

‘unica oficial to consider incineration,

Inorder to assist local officials with developing cost-

effective strates for dealing with solid waste manage

ly exponsble This Teinical Guidance Report provides the foundation for such a detailed evaluation of solid

‘waste incineration systems A document for making a

‘more preliminary assessment is the accompanying Devision Maker’ Guide te Incineration of Manicpal Solid Waste

‘This report should be used with caution since both technical and financial feasibility are very ste-specif-

ic Readers with general interest and technical spe- cialists will find this report useful in making their assessments, A comprehensive solid waste manage- ment program may include several options phased in

‘over along period of time daring which refuse qua tities, constituents, and the overall economic picture may change significantly This uncertainty and asso- cated risks must be incorporated into the planti process

Keshav Varma Sector Manager Urban Development Sector Unit East Asia and Pacific Region

“The World Bank Washington, DC USA

Acknowledgments

“The Report was made possible through the generous

support of the Danish government The report was

prepared by Mr J Haukohl, Mr T Randy and Me U

Marxen of RAMBOLL Three people were instrumen

tal in encouraging the preparation of these publica

tions, Lars Mikkel Johannessen, currently with the

Danish government, Dr Carl Bartone, Principal

Environmental Specialist, and Gabriel Boyer The Task

Manager for this work was Jack Frit, Environmental Enginees The editors were Mellen Candage and Cacol Levie of Grammnarians, Inc

In addition to internal reviewers, we also thank the external peet

specially Stephen Schwarz, PE of Maleolm Pirie, Inc, and Anil Chatterjee, PE of Chatteriee and Associates

jewers for their time and comments,

Abbreviations and Symbols

rN ‘Ash content per kg af dry sample Mow Weight of condensed water per kg of dry

EIA Environmental impact assessment Nm’ Standard or normal eubie meters

Hyer Ashand water free calorific value SCR Selective catalytic reduction

Hy, Lower (inferior) calorific value sec Second

Hoo oyna Overall lower calorie value SNCR Selective non-citalytic reduction

IRD Human resource development SWOT Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, Hyoy Upper (superior) calorific value threats

Hogs Superior calorific value of dry sample 1 ‘Metric ton (1,000 kg)

Chemical abbreviations

`

cal, Caleium chloride

cacd, Calcium carbonate

Gr, Calcium fluoride

caso, Calcium sulfite

caso, (Calcium sulfate

Ha Hydrogen chloride

Manipal Solid Waste ncneraton Hydrogen fluoride

Mercury Manganese Molybdenum Sodium sulfate Sodium hydroxide

‘Ammonia

‘Ammonium chloride Nickel

Nitrogen oxide Oxygen, Lead Polyvinyl chloride

‘Antimony Selenium Solite

‘Thallium Vanadium

?inc

PART 1

ASSESSMENT

1 Introduction

The Technical Guidance Report provides back-

ground information for the Decision Makers’ Guide

0 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Incineration The

Report focuses on large-scale incineration plants

for large urban areas ar intermunicipal coopera-

ives, I does not addeess hazardous and infectious

wastes

“The Decision Makers’ Guides practical toa for

4 preliminary assessment of whether the key crite-

ria for a solid waste incineration scheme are pre-

The Tivinicol Guidance Report provides decision

makers and their advisers with more elaborate infor

mation on how to investigate and assess the degree to

whieh the key criteria are fulfilled Hence, the Report

comprises a comprehensive aecount of many aspects

tf waste incineration, Part | of the Report provides

information needed to assess the feasibility of MSW

incineration, Part 2 covers technical aspects and the

available technologies related toan MSW incineration

plant

The Decision Makers’ Guide primarily addcesses

an audience at the political level, whereas the

Technical Guidance Report presumes some degree

fof general technical Knowledge However, a

expertise within the field of waste incineration is

required to understand the Technical Guidance

Report,

Finally, note that the Toenial Guidance Reports far

from being a design manual for an MSW incineration

plant, Theresponsibility the final feasibility assessment

and the consecutive design of such a plant mast be

entrusted to experienced consultants and suppliers

‘with an extensive tack record in this complex subject

Finance

Part 2— Technical + Plant Location + Incineration Technology + Energy Recovery

+ Air Pollution Control + Incineration Residues + Opecation and Maintenance + Environmental Impact and Occupational Health Each chapter is standardized to make information easy to acess, a follows:

Ifany mandatory key criterion isnot expected to be

fulfilled, itis advisable to stop planning the solid waste

incineration plat

+ General principles—Elaboraton of the general con-

siderations

The Technical Guidance Report is supplemented by

an evaluation checklist for decision makers who are

considering MSW incineration as part of their waste

‘management strategy

‘Furthermore, as an introduction, the following two

sections providea brief overview af the flow and man-

agement of municipal solid waste, objectives and

applicability of waste incineration, and the necessary

institutional framework

‘The Flow and Management of Municipal

Solid Waste

Solid waste arses from human actvities—domestic

commercial, industrial agricultural, wastewater treat-

‘ment, and so oa If the wast is not properly handled

and treated, it will have a negative impact on the

hygienic conditions in urban areas and poate the air

and surface water and groundwater, as well as the soil

sad crops

‘A hygienic and efficient sytern for collection and

<isposal of sold wastes therfore fundamental for any

community Generally, the demands on the solid waste

‘management system increase with the size of the com-

‘munity and its pr capita income Figure 1.1 shows that

the final destination of waste is abways a disposal site

Residues from waste treatment processes are returned

tothe wastemainstream and end up inthe land with

tunteeated waste, Hence, the backbone of any waste

‘management system is an efficient collection sytem

and an environmentally sound sanitary landfill

‘The system's resource recovery and recycling reflect

‘hat solid wastes are materials and by-products with

potentially negative the possessor

Understanding what may be considered waste wil thas

change with the eizcumstances ofthe possessor as well

asin time and place Waste may be transformed into a

resource simply by transportation to a new place or

value for

Municipal Sold Waste frcineration

‘through treatment Such a transformation depends on the costs involved and whether the economy is looked upon asa private business, national priority, or even slobally

Waste treatment involving mechanical plants requires large investments and operating costs Hence,

it should be only introduced after gaining profound knowledge of the existing system and waste genera tion—which is quite a challenge, except in a highly organized waste management system, ‘The most important factor in obtaining such information is that the waste is already dispose of in fully monitored and controlled landfls only

Deciding o incinerate waste instead of, for instance, dumping it, akes careful consideration ofthe crite for succes In the mid 1980s, a number of Eastern European and Asian cities jumped directly from sim-

‘ple dumping to MSW incineration Any succes was, however, questionable in many of these cities In the former Soviet Union, several plants were commis sioned in the late 1970s nd early 1980s, Unfortunately, someof these plants were never completed, thers were discontinued, and the rest are operating at reduced

«capacity because of financial, managerial, and opera- tional shortcomings

In Asia theres limited experience with waste fncin- eration outside the industrialized countries of Japan, Singapore, and Taiwan, A few plants in other places

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Composting | ——> | Soil improver

mm ]——~[ mg

=— ]—[ m3 Bgmimm] —————x[ nam

hhave experienced managerial, financial, or operational

problems, ncludinglow calorific value ofthe waste due

to scavenging, precipitation, or the basic composition

ofthe generated waste

‘The failure of MSW incineration plants is usually

‘caused by one or more ofthe fllowing:

+ Inability or unwillingness to pay the fll treatment

fe, which results in insufficient revenue to cover

loan installments and operation and maintenance

+ Poor plant management Inadequate institutional arrangements (Overly optimistic projections by vendors

Objectives and Applicability of MSW Incineration

Im highly industrialized European countries, waste incineration plants have been used increasingly over the last 50 years, mainly because it has been more dif- ficult to find new sites for landfills in densely popul

6

cd areas, The public concern for the environmental

impact of MSW incineration has, however, increased

significantly over the lst 20 years—forcing the manu-

facturers to develop, and the plans to install and oper-

ate, high-cost advanced technology for pollution con-

trol (especially air pollution)

Incineration of MSW does not completely elimi

nate, but does significantly reduce, the volume of waste

to be landfilled The reductions are approximately 75

percent by weight and 90 percent by volume The

residues arising from air pollution control (APC) are,

however environmentally problematic, as they present

a severe threat to ground and surface waters Current

technology is supposed to dispose of such residues in

highly controlled sanitary landfills equipped with

advanced leachate collection and treatment measures,

orin former underground minesto prevent lachingof

heavy metals and, for some APC residues, chlorides

Fear of pollution often brings MSW incineration

plants to the center of emotional public debate

Incinerating solid waste fulfils two purposes in the

advanced waste management system Primarily, it

reduces the amount of waste for sanitary landllings

and it uses waste fr energy production (power or dis-

trict heating) Hence, waste incineration plants are

generally introduced in areas where the sting of sani

tary landfilis in conflict with other interests such as

city development, agriculture, and tourism,

Solid waste incineration isa highly complex technol

‘63; which involves large investments and high operat-

ing costs, Income from sale of energy makes an impor:

tant (and necessary) contribution to the total plant

«economy,and, consequently the energy market playsan

important role in deciding whether to establish pant

Several types of incineration technologies are aval:

ble today, and the most widely used is mass burning

weration—with a movable grate or, to a lesser

extent, rotary kilns Fuidized bed incineration itil at

the experimental stage and should therefore not yet be

applied The mass burning technology with a movable

trate has been successfully applied for decades and was

Aeveloped to comply with the latest technical and envi

ronmental standards Mass burning incineration can

generil handle municipal waste without pretreat-

‘ment on an as-received bass,

Manic Soi Waste Incineration

‘Mass burning technologies are generally applied for large-scale incineration of mixed or source-separated

‘municipal and industrial waste Compared to movable trates, the rotary kiln incineration plants have a small-

cr capacity and are mostly used for special types of

‘waste unsuitable for burning on a grate, such a vari-

us types of hazardous, liquid, and infectious waste

Institutional Framework—Overview

‘When considering the construction of an incineration plant, itismecessary to consult with many rojectstake- holders The relevant stakeholders are usually authori- ties, the wast sector, community groups,and the ener-

By sector A further subdivision of these stakeholders appears in figure 1.2 below

Its important to review posible local stakeholders based on the actual local conditions, political and financial situation, and other current and planned wast treatment and disposal facilites

‘The ost important issue, financially could be gen- eration of revenue from the sale of heat or power (or both), as wel asthe possiblity of collecting fees from commercial, domestic, and public waste generators Environmentally, important issues may be to define suitable standards for flue gas emissions, quality and disposal of solid outputs (slag, ash, and flue gas clean- ing residuals), as well as waste water in case a wet flue

ts cleaning system is applied

Inarodution

‘The most important question, institutionally, could

be how to contol the waste flv for optimum treat-

‘ment and utilization ofthe available waste treatment

and disposal facltes;and how to ensure thatthe insti-

tutional and managerial capacity requited to operatea

multiple stringed waste management sytem,

Depending on local traditions and the eve of

ronmental awareness a special and transparent infor-

‘mation campaign could be carried out for community groups and neighboring citizens

‘The goal, strength, resources, and awareness ofthe stakeholders often difer among each other and with those ofthe proposed incineration plant ownec/oper ator Reaching a solution that is acceptable to all may

be difficult,

2 Waste as Fuel

Key Issues

Te successful outcome ofa waste incineration projet

first depends on fey curate data on the future waste

‘quantities and characteristics that form the basis for

the design ofthe incineration plant

Waste for incineration must meet certain basic

requirements n particular, the energy content of the

wast, the so-called lower calorific value (LCV), must

beabovea minimum level The specificcomposition of

the waste isalso important An extreme waste compo-

sition of only sand and plastics isnot suitable for incin-

eration, even thotigh the average lower calorific value

is relatively high Furthermore, in order to operat the

incineration plant continuously, waste generation

must be fuel table during the yea

Hence, the amount and composition of slid waste

generated in the collection area for a potential inciner-

ation plan, and possible seasonal variations, must be

wel established before the project is launched Waste

composition depends on variables suchas cultural đi:

ferences, climate, and socio-economic conditions

‘Therefore date wsually cannot be transferred from one

place to another

All waste studies and forecasts must focus on the

waste ultimately supplied to the waste incineration

plant, Consequently, the effect of recyling activites

(for example, seavengers) that change the composition

ofthe waste must always be considered

In many developing countries, the domestic waste

has a high moisture or ash content (or both)

Therefore, a comprehensive survey must be taken to

establish whether itis feasible to incinerate year-round,

2s seasonal variations may significantly afect the com"

bustibilty ofthe waste

‘waste containing certain hazardous or explosive com- pounds, are not suitable for incineration,

“The waste composition may change in time because

of cither additional reycling or economic growth in

‘the collection area Bath changes an significant alter the amount of wast and its aortic value

Key criteria

ý 2 The sxenge lower calorific value of the

waste must be a least 6 MI/kg throughout all seasons The annual average lower calorific value rust not beless than 7 Mi/kg, Forecasts of waste generation and composi- tion are established on the basis of waste surveys in the collection area for the planned incineration plant This task must

be caried out by an experienced (and inde- pendent institution,

Assumptions on the delivery of com- bbustible industrial and commercial waste to snincineration plant should be foundsd on fan assessment of positive and negative incentives for the various stakeholders to

‘use the incineration facility

‘Theannualamountof wast forincineration should not be less than 50,000 metric tons

and the weekly variations in the wast supply

to the plant should not exceed 20 percent

‘Waste Generation and Composition

‘The quantity and composition of solid waste depend

‘onhow developed the community sand the sat ofits

‘conomy Industrial growth isan important tol for

rising the per capita income and welfare ofthe popu-

lation In etuen, industrial growthand higher percapi-

ta income generate more wast, which if not properly

controlled causes environmental degradation

Key figures for generation of municipal slid waste

(451) appearin table 2.1 MSW iscallected byoron

the order ofthe authorities and commonly comprises

vaste disposed of at municipal collection faites

from households, commercial activites, ofc bulld-

ings, public institutions, and small businesses The

actual definition of ‘municipal solid waste” may boy»

ever, vary from place to place

Urbanization and rapid growth of cites increase the

amounts of waste generated in limited and densely

‘South and Wes Asa

‘Latin America and

populated areas This, in turn, may eliminate the pos- sibility of inexpensive disposal methods,

In more rural areas, crops and animal wastes are increasing as pesticides and fertilizers are applied more often However, many of these biodegradable materials may be burned as fuel or easily converted into a soil conditioner and should not be regarded as true waste,

Waste as Fue

Generally, construction, demolition, and street

sweeping wastes are not suited for incineration,

‘The composition ofthe various types of MSW varies

greatly by climate and seasonal variations and the

socio-economy of the wast collection ares

In general, high-income area generate more waste

than low: oF axiddle-income areas Thus, waste gener

ation and composition may dlfer greatly even within

the sate metropolis,

‘Waste collected in affluent areas is typically less

dense, as it contains more packaging and other lighter

‘materials and less ash and food waste This is because

‘more ready-made products are consumed and the food

processing takes place in the commercalindustrial

sector

"The moisture is greater in lower-income areas dueto

the water content of the food waste and smaller

amounts of paper and other dry materials Annual

variationsin moisture content depend on climaticcon-

tions such as precipitation and harvest seasons for

vegetables and fui

Examples ofthe composition of waste from China,

the Philippines, and European countries are presented

intable 22

Heating Value

‘Once ignited, he ability of waste to sustain a combus-

tion process withovt supplementary fuel depends on a

"

‘number of physical and chemical parameters, of which the lower (inferior calorific value (Hi) is the most important, The minimum required lower calorific value fora controlled incineration aso depends on the furnace design, Low-grade fuels require a design that

‘minimizes heat loss and allows the waste to dry before ignition

Daring incineration, water vapors from the com- bastion process and the moisture content of the fuel dlisperse with the flue gases The energy content ofthe water vapors accounts for the difference between a fuels upper and the lower calorific values

‘The upper (superior) calorific value (Hy) of a fel

‘may, according to DIN 51900, be defined asthe energy content released per unit weight through total com- Dbustion ofthe fuel The temperatute ofthe fel before

‘combustion and ofthe residues (including condensed

‘water vapors) after combustion must be 25°C, and the air pressure l atmosphere The combustion must result

in complete oxidation of all carbon and sulfur to car bbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, respectively, whereas

no oxidation of nitrogen must take plac

The lower calorific value differs from the upper

<alorfic value by the heat of condensation ofthe com- bined water vapors, which comes from the fuel’s mois ture content and the hydrogen released through com bustion

“Theash- and waterfre calorific vale (Hq expres-

«the lower calorific value of the combustible fraction Ggnition los of cry sample) as stated on page 12

‘Table 22 Composition of Municipal Wastes (percentage of wet weight)

2

‘Asarule of thumb, H,¢may be estimated at 20,000

{alk for ordinary MSW, except when the waste con-

content

differs greatly from conventional fossil fuels:

Calculating the calorific value of MSW is, therefore,

complex and may lead to gross errors if done incor-

{is most critical and variations must be accounted for

‘Assuming that it isnot posible to assess the fuel

Municipal Solid Waste Incineration

‘existing waste incineration plant, more or less sophis-

tiated evaluation methods may be apple

Afi indication my be obtained imply by extab- lishing the following thre parameters (in percentage

—

‘A: Ash content (ignition residuals) Combustible fraction (ignition loss of dry sample)

We Moisture of raw waste

“The lower calorific value of a fuel may then be cal~ culated from the following:

Figure 21 Tanner Triangle for Assessment of Combustibilty of MSW

Waste as Bul

gg = Hyg" C= 2445 * W in Kg,

‘Assuming that the waste has no dominant fraction

with an extremely low or high calorific value the lower

calorific value may be obtained by applying an approx:

mate value of 20,000 R/g for Hyg

= 20,000 * B- 2445 * W in kg

“The resuk may aloe ploted ina Taner triangle dia-

ram 6 se where it flls within the shaded area indicat-

inga combustible fuel (Ggure 21) The wast is theoreti-

«ally feasible for combustion without ousiiary fuel when:

|W-< 50 percent, A < 60 percent, and C > 25 percent

A more accurate way to asess the fuel quality of

it into characteristic components (organic waste, plastics, cardboard, ere materials and

the lke), determine the water content (4@W) the ash

content (9A) and the combustible matter (98C) The

love calorific value foreach component can be found

Jn laboratory or literature values for Hy, 0r that com

‘Table 23 provides examples of the results of this simple waste analysis, as well asthe lower calorific value determined asthe weighted average ofthe heat value for characteristic components ofthe waste, The waste from Manila has the highest combustible content and

Waste Surveys/Forecasts Estimating the amount and composition of solid waste requires in-depth knowledge of the waste col lection are’ demographic and commercial/industi

al structure, Reliable waste generation data and fore-

casts are scarce in most countries Data and key figures

are often related to the overall waste generation/dis-

posal of large cities and municipalities, Significant dif-

ferences will however, exist between waste generation

and composition ina city’s various zones such as its

high- or low-income residential, commercial and

industrial areas

Literature is available on Key figures for waste gen-

cration and composition, When properly selected and

applied, such data may be used fora preliminary assess-

ment of the feasibility of various waste treatment

‘methods For design purposes, however, itis best to

cstablish and apply specific data forthe area Is rec-

‘ommended that waste quantity and quality be sur

veyed year-round to monitor the seasonal variation

both in amounts and in waste characteristics This may

be particularly important in regions with distinct

tourist seasons, high monsoon rains, and the like,

Waste Forecasts

“To be economically feasible, waste incineration plants

must havea life span of atleast 15 to 20 years Waste

quantity and composition should be forecast over the

lifetime of the incineration plant A waste generation

forecast requires a combination of data normally used

for town planning purposes along with specific waste

generation data (see table 2.5)

‘Changes in waste composition willbe influenced by

government regulations of issues such a recycng and

the overall economic development of society However,

possible development trends maybe obtained by stady-

ing the waste composition in different parts ofthe same

‘metropolis—for instance in high-, medium.,andlow-

ho

Municipal Soli Waste Incineration income areas Literatute on investigations from similar societies may also be useful Annual variations are lke-

ly to continue according to the present pattern

‘As an example, the forecast for the domestic waste forthe year (n) maybe calculated according tothe for-

‘mula below Variables include the present population, the expected long-term annual growth, the most recent

‘waste generation key figure, and the foreseen increase

‘in this igure

‘Domestic waste = PPX (14 GR, (14GR gy)"

‘Pathe present population, GR the growth rateand w,

‘ge actual hey figure, waste generation per capita

IF available, the per capita generation key figure (we) should be determined by asesing reliable existing waste dat, If reliable datas not available, an accurate

‘wast survey shoul be carried out An example of per capita generation key figures re shown in abe 25 Waste Survey

If reliable waste data and record keeping systems are not available, a waste survey should be used to gener- ate statistically significant results, The survey must consider alarge numberof parameters selected accord- ing to the objective of the study—for example, waste {quantity or composition Also, to detect seasonal vari- the survey should be performed all through the year Generally, continuous reliable waste data record ing and record keeping are important for developing

(Commercial sector employment Growih ye Japan

(Gross domestic product(GDP) Annual general prosperity owt France

Wate generation ey gues Growihnear

Waste a Fuel

realistic waste management plans, monitoring the

effects of waste management strategies, and publicly

controlling waste flows an the performance of waste

management organizations

‘The degrees of freedom are statistically reduced

when the sampling point moves away from the origin

of the waste and towards the disposal site—that is,

fewer samples are required to obtain the desired preci

sion of the data, In return, 2 number of systematic

errors may be introduced, For example scavenging and

‘other recycling activities will reduce weight and change

the composition ofthe waste In developing countries,

where there is much scavenging, the calorific value of

the waste may be reduced considerably due to recovery

‘of wood, plastic, textiles, eather, cardboard, and paper

Plus, the weight ofthe waste may be influenced by cli

‘matic conditions on is way from the point of origin to

‘ultimate disposal During dry seasons, weight is lost

through evaporation, and precipitation during the wet

season may increase the weigh

Waste Quantity Key Figures and Annual Variation

For well-organized waste management systems where

_most ofthe waste ends up in controlled landfilslong-

term systematic weighing of the incoming waste will

allow a good estimate ofthe key figutes for waste ge

eration and the annual variation, Thus, landéills and

other facilites receiving waste must have weighing

bridges to produce reliable waste data

"To establish waste generation key figures, waste

‘quantity should be registered systematically and fairly

accurately For every lad, the collestion vehicles must

submit information about the type of wasteand its or

sin, Further information about the district where the

‘waste was collected canbe obtained from town plan

ning sources and the socio-economic aspects can con-

sequondly be included in the key figure calculations

‘Table 2.7 indicates how a waste collection area may be

1s divided into collection districts to reflect character tics of waste generation,

Im places with no waste registration recon typical dieid may be outlined according to Table 27 Then, the collected waste should be systematically weighed,

‘The registration should continue fora least fll ear

tw detect any seasonal variations, Great care must be taken to ensure that no changes ae introduced in the collection districts, which could make the results ambiguous

Introducing « waste incineration plant will reduce the livelihood of landfill scavengers They may move to anew place in front ofthe treatment plat, thus chang

‘ng the composition and calorific value ofthe wast It

is important to assess the impact of such a change, according to the amount the scavengers remove atthe

‘existing Land

Waste Composition Waste composition varies with the waste type, the socio-economic conitions ofthe collection area, and seasonal variations, Planning a comprehensive survey

‘of the composition of waste types therefore requires input from a town planner a waste management

‘expert, and a statistician The survey planners should do at leas the following:

+ Select the point of waste interception in sch a way

‘thatthe waste will reflect what will reach a future treatment facility or incineration plant

Colton Dis

+ Establish baseline data forthe district (population,

industry, trade, and such

+ Monitor the amount of waste generated in the dis

trict and the daily number of truckloads

+ Statistically assess the numberof samples required

to obtain a95 percent confidence level on the waste

composition, The distribution of the individual

‘waste component can be assumed to be Gaussian

‘However, there should never be ess than 25 ofeach

type of waste

+ Assess whether the seasonal variation neces

‘more than one round of sampling (for example,

summer/vinter or wetldry)

Executing the practical part ofthe waste compos

tion survey requires additional careful planning, The

physical facilites must be prepared to protect the staff

performing the sorting and ensure that samples and

results remain representative Sorting is best carried

cout in wellvented buildings with concrete ioors to

ensure that no waste isost The sorting station must be

furnished with sorting tables, a screen, easy-t0-clean

buckets or containers, and at least one scale The logis-

tics are summarized in table 2.8

Table 28 Logins

The collection vehide fom the representative collection dais interepted according to he plan

Municipal Sod Waste Incineration Sorting waste toa reasonable degree of accuracy requires that staff have advanced training The pickers must learn to recognize the different waste categories—-especially different types of plastics

‘They mast empty cans, jars and bags before placing

‘them in containers To ensute consistency, the sam- pling and sorting process must be controlled and supervised by the same person throughout the waste survey Furthermore, all procedures, includ ing laboratory analyses and methods of calculation, rust be described in detail in a waste characteriea- tion manaal

Sorting categories should bebased on the amount of, the characteristic categories and their influence on the

<alorifc value Table 2.9 presents some ofthe typical characteristic categories The recommended minimum, umber of categories are presented together with

‘optional subdivisions Typical lower calorific values for the ashand water fce samples (H,¢ are given foreach, type of material These values are approximate, and laboratory measurements of Hye should to a certain

‘extent be applied to supplement and confirm or sub stitute literature values twhen calculating the overall heat value ofthe waste

incipls of Sampling and Analysis of Waste Dat

‘he vb weighed felland ae erpy resin inthe tl waste weight The mast lune deter Someies sorting ofall rua oo ime consuming Preparing eptesetatve subsample (petaps

— weve pcpring repre bape ent ape abd a etal posed oh routine mọt

‘The wns sunkaded one loo ofthe sorting ding Ie then pc eyes abo 0 mete thick on sorting ube coverd by plane sheets The wae is manulyotd acconding he redetzminel mai Categories Thee the able serene with tsk ie faut 12 tu) Te ste ste This peocedur's alowed una he enti od subsample incding oor seepegs hasbeen did

Physical Anas A fatons ar weed and he mitre content darn hough yng ater seg 105°C unt

‘constant weight obtained about? bouts) The moisture cones Jtamne on epee samples fal ections on he day cllection

‘The chee ants sould be performed a eid laboratory The hey praaterae sh content and ombtbe mater low of gto t 3 Cfo tedious and ne ean alc fo a en the

‘ad and he ies actions Sans mst be hoogetian! though proper epee mig and big dat est ire anaes shouldbe perfor on xc ction time aa eors

The wet and dy wea waste ernpostion te clued tether wih he nerf codecs

ood serps ad vegetables

(tobe aralyediaeach case)

[Ne = Depend on bil kp of meri

Ultimately, the waste survey allows a calculation of,

‘the average lower calorific value for each typeof waste

‘The formula for determining the lower calorific

value (H,,) foreach type of waste is:

By weighting these individual Hy for each type of

‘waste with the percentage wet weight (M), the overall

lower calorie valu can be found by applying the fl-

Towing formula

‘Waste Load Design Calculation

‘The ware survey and forecast wil establish theexpect-

‘edamount and composition of waste generated during thelifetime ofthe faclity (for example, 20-year per- od) The actual volume of wast arriving at the incin-

‘ation plant will depend onthe efficiency of the cal lection sytem, together with negative and positive incentives for suplying the waste to the plant The

‘most negative incentive may bean increased gate fee compared to fee of landing

Before deciding onthe plants design capacity itis recommended to apply factor fr collection efficien-

«othe theoretical amounts This is especialy impor- tant for commercial and industrial wast, which may include a larger proportion of materials suitable for recovery and reycing.

“

“The wast load on the incineration facility will consist

‘of combination of domestic, commercial, and indus-

trial waste

‘he basic load will, however, be domestic waste,

‘which canbe assumed to be supplied almost entirely t9

the incineration plant

‘Separate collection of waste with a high energy con-

tent cam theoretically increase the calorific value of the

waste fuel, However, this method is likly to fil n the

practical world due o a lack of efficient waste separa-

Municipal Solid Waste ncineaton ton atthe source and the additional cost involved in the colletion system Incineration of waste from cer- tain areas (typically the more affluent ones) may, how- ever, be feasible,

Mechanical sorting is another way to raise the average calorific value before incineration, This is typically a step in the production of waste-derived fuel, and suitable technology is available, but it usu- ally isn't used before mass burning because of addi- tional costs

3

Key lsues

“The success of an MSW incineration plant depends 3s,

mạch on the institutional framework as on the waste

and technology Four main institutional framework

areas must be considered: the waste sector, the orga

zation and management ofthe incineration plan itself,

the energy sector, and the authorities responsible for

control and enforcement

‘The institutional framework for the wast sector and

the waste management system must be sufficiently

developed to ensue supply of the design waste ow

and quality of waste forthe lifespan of the incineration

plant The wast sector must further design and oper

te controlled landfill fr environmentally safe dis

‘posal of the incineration residues

{An organizational setup that can administer the

plant and support the waste incineration project so

that it becomes an integral part of the waste man

agement system is cracial, There should be a high

‘degree of interaction between the different parts of

the waste management system and the waste incin

eration plant either through ownership of long-term

agreements

Incin

tion is significantly more costly tha

using landfills The waste generators—that is, the

population and the commercial sector—mustthere-

fate be willing to pay the additional cost, or else there

‘must be a subsidy scheme, Insofae as the operator!

‘ovner of the MSW incineration plants supposed to

collect treatment charges, there must be ways to

enforce this

‘When ownership is private, there may be insttu-

tional borderline problems in the delivery of a sui

cient quantity and quality of waste, the pattern and

price of sale of energy, or both, Waste flow must be con

Institutional Framework

trolled, hus ensuring chat itis delivered to the most appropriate plant and, in particular, that indiscrimi- nate dumping i avoided, Waste flow can be controlled bya combination of tariff policy (inching eross-sub- sidization via the tipping fee atthe licensed facilites),

‘enacting and enforcing waste management legislation, and a waste data ana record heeping sytem

Traditionally, the waste management sector is viewed as an undesirible place to work In some regions, thishas resulted in poorly managed wast ser vices Plus, it has been difficult to recruit and maintain qualified staff—for instance, in rapidly growing economies where the public sector cannot match the salaries of private companies

In particular, operating and maintaining waste Incineration requires highly skilled and effective man- agement—which means that new and skilled managers

‘may have to be attracted Existing staff will have to be trained and capacity wil hve to be expanded Also, it shouldbe decided whether to involve the private sector

in operation and maintenance The ecessery skillsand

‘education resemble the human resource demands in the energy sector, for example, management of power plants

“To ensure proper and envitonmentally safe opera- tion, authorities responsible for control and enforce- ment muste on hand These authorities mustbe inde- pendent of the owner and operator of the waste incineration plan

Ingeneral incineration plants are influenced by and depend on mumerous legal, institutional, and socio-

‘economic fictors in the environment To assess fly the appropriateness ofa proposed institutional fame- work 4 comprehensive stakeholder analysis must be performed for both the existing and any projected situations

Key Criteria

⁄ ý ý A wẻlLfmmetioning solid waste manage-

‘ment system, including a properly eng

acered and controled landil, hasbeen pre-

sent fora number of years

Y FF Solid waste collection and transportation

(domestic, commercial, and industrial) are

‘managed bya limited numberof wel-regu-

lated and controlled organizations

LFS There ace signed and approved letters of

intent or agreements for waste supply and

energy se,

1 fF Consumers and public authorities ace able

and willing to pay forthe increased cost of

4 fF Authorities responsible for control, moni-

toring, and enforcing operation ar present

The authorities responsible for contro,

monitoring, and enforcement are indepen

dent ofthe ownership and operation ofthe

plant

Skilled staf for plant operation are available

at affordable salaries Otherwise, reliable

operation and/or maintenance contracts

are in place ether in the form of operation

and service contracts or via BO/DBO!

BOOT/BOO schemes,

⁄ The waste management authority owns the

incineration pl

⁄ “Municipal guarantees cover any shortfllsin

the plant economy due to nsufcient sup-

ply or quality of waste

Waste Sector

The waste sector includes public institutions and orga-

tows as well as private companies involved in col-

Municipal Sold Waste Incineration lection, transportation and final disposal ofalltypes of solid waste Generally, collection of waste from house holds and shops in residential areas is based on a pub- lic initiative, Large commercial centers, office com- plexes, and industries are, however, offen required to arrange their own waste collection and disposal Thus, there may be many operators involved in solid waste collection and transportation,

A fully developed and controlled solid waste man- agement system is a precondition for establishing an MSW incineration plant A functional management system should have been in placefor at least a few years before implementing the incineration plant

‘A well-functioning solid waste management system

‘ensures that all domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes ae collected, transported, and disposed of ina hygienic and environmentally safe manner at sanitary Ianalils Where such systems do not exist, the colle tion is much les efficient, and a significant part ofthe

‘wast is likely tobe disposed of through uncontrolled dumping,

Ifthe waste management system is not fully con-

‘rolled, increased incineration costs are likey to insti- gate mocellegal waste disposal activities, The ultimate effect may be that the supply to the plant becomes insulficient in quantity or quality

rom waste generation to disposal, various kinds of more or lew organized recycling activites take place

‘The commercial sector and the industries employ their

‘own staff to salvage materials 10 sell and recycle Scavengers may be found at any stage of the handling

‘system They seach dust bins and containers close to

‘the point of origin of the waste dump sites Disturbing the waste flow by introducing solid waste treatment facies may "force" the scavengers to sbift thet oper- ation from the end of the wastechain toward the begin: ning—thus changing the waste composition believed tobe available

“The complexity of the waste management system has occasionally caused legal problems regarding the

‘ownership ofthe waste The crucial question is: When does waste change from private property to a public nuisance or asst? If this is not clear from a legal point

of view itis difficult to commit or ensure the supply of

‘waste to the treatment facility, Thus, regulatory changes may be necessary

Inditulondl ramenurk

Payment for services rendered i generally crucial in

waste management Public health protection eequites

‘waste to be collected and disposed of away from inhab-

ited areas, but not all areas or sectors may be willing o¢

able to pay far such services The only secure way of

recovering the cost is through mandatory service

charges collected from the waste generators—possibly

together with property taxes or service charges for

water and electricity

Private waste operators serving trade and industry

ate likely to dispose of waste in the cheapest possible

ways even using an ilegal method such as indiscrimi

nate dumping, Strict control and enforcement are

required 2o prevent such activities,

Energy Sector

Incineration plants consume and generate large

amounts of energy and are terefore important players

in the local energy matket—especilly in relatively

small communities It is thus important to establish

‘whether an incineration plant for sold waste can be

integrated into the legal and institutional framework of

the energy sector

The energy sector is often heavily regulate

‘Concession to prodiuce and sel electricity is generally

‘granted only toa limited number of public or private

‘operators An incineration plant established by anoth

ce organization may therefore face opposition in

“obtaining necessary approval Cooperation with exis

ing energy producers or consumers can therefore be

useful

Prices of energy paid by consumers may be subsi-

sized or taxed rather than based solely on production

«costs The prices of energy from waste incineration may

therefore have tobe fixed bythe government-—which

brings up important political and socio-economiccon

siderations A high price resulting ina reduced gate fee

“ill subsidize the waste sector, whereas low price will

favor the energy consumers

I is most feasible when the energy can be sold to a

Single consumer for its own use or resale The con-

sumer may be a utility company wit an existing dis-

tribution network for district heating oF power of 2

large steam-consuming industrial complex

a

“The purpose of solid waste incineration plants isto

‘reat waste and hence reduce the waste volume fr dis posal The design and layout of an incineration plant are based on continuous operation at 100 percent load In principle, the energy output will be almost constant 24 hours a day The waste energy can there fore be regarded as a supplement to other fossil uel based energy sources that are operated ata load corse sponding to the actual energy demand Normally, the

‘energy produced from incineration plants is regarded asbase load Depending on the price patter, the price

‘of the waste generated energy wll reflect this base load

To use all the energy produced incineration plants should mainly be established in large energy networks

‘where they can function as base load units with both

diurnal and seasonal variation

Incineration Plant Organization and Management (Ownership and Operation

MSW incineration plant ownership and allocation of operational responsibility is of great importance Different kinds of borderline problems may

‘depending on the model These problems are related to supply and quality of waste, as wel as sale and distrib- tution of heat, or both—depending on sshether the plant belongs within the waste sector, the energy sec- tor, or toa private operator

Incineration plants belonging to the solid waste management organization responsible for waste col lection, transportation, treatment, and ultimate dis- posal generally experience few problems regarding the supply of fuel” or disposal of residuals The main inst tutional problems are elated tothe sling and distib- ting energy

Alternatively, the incineration plant may be located within the energy sector and belong to the power sup ply companies Here, there are no problems with sll ing and distributing energy Hossever there may be problematic cultural differences between the energy

Sector and the wast sector

“The energy sector i accustomed to highly sta lardized fuel quality and is not ase co variations in quantity and quality of waste, Normally, energy pro-

2

ducers modulate the operational pattern according to

the energy demand MSW incineration plans, howev-

cr, have to follow the pattern of supply rather than

demand They must therefore accept variations in

‘quantity and quality ofthe fuel and energy output An

energy sector-based incineration plant ovener will

therefore try to exercise control over maximum and

mininvam waste supply and quality

Privatization of incineration plants can include

combined ownership and operation or operation only

Tully privatized facilities may experience borderline

problems towards both the waste management and

nergy sectors Establishing the necessary agreements

is complicated, and problems monitoring and contrl-

ling the waste supply and energy sale will develop

‘The borderline problems between the sectors must

be solved through firm and irrevocable agreements

bnefore plans are made to build the plant, Otherwise, the

feasibility ofthe plants jeopardized

Staff recruitment and maintenance may be crucial

when deciding on the plant's ownership In booming

economies, the government often pays significantly

smaller salaries thao the private sector In return, the

government and other authorities offen provide pen-

sion schemes and greater job security than the private

‘This may make it difficult for the public sector to

attract enough qualified stall Sta? trained at the

plants expense may leave for better paying jobs The

privately owned and operated facilities can better

retain staff, since they can pay competitive salaries and

incentives Both private and publicly operated plants

must, however, expect t0 have a continuous human

resource development (HRD) program to maintain

staff for plant operation and maintenance

‘The organizational setup and financial management

system for the incineration plant can influence plant

upkeep and maintenance Several special equipment

spares and components may be available only from

abroad Because spending foreign currency can be

restricted or may require an extended approval process,

procuring emergency replacement parts may cause the

plant to shut dossn fr ong periods of time

It is preferable for the incineration plant to be an

economic entity ofits own, whether publicly or pri:

vately owned and operated This gives the plant man-

‘Waste incineration is significantly more costly than waste disposal in sanitary landfills, even ater incorpo- rating the revenues from sale of energy The addition-

AI costs can seldom be collected asa gate fe alone, because the waste might be taken and disposed of in an

‘uncontrolled mannet The budget deficiency must be covered by general waste service charges, otherwise col- lected or compensated for through subsidies

‘Waste management charges should generaly be ol- lected by an authority which holds suficient legal power to apply reprisals when payments are not made Establishing new entities solely to collect incineration fecsis costly and mustbe accompanied by an allocation

‘of enforcement power to collect overdue payments

‘Tender Models for Waste Incineration Plants

‘Table 3.1 outlines the principal tender models and

‘ownership and management models fo waste incin ation plants

“Thetraditional ender model isthe multiple contract

‘or single turnkey contract model, After commissioning

the plant, theclient—typically the municipality group

‘of municipalities, ora public waste management inst tution —begins operating the plant

“These models ensure the most public control of ser vice level, plant performance, plant finance, and tstff setting However theclient must bear the financialbur- den of the investment and acquire the management and technical skills for implementing and operating the plant, A time-limited management and training (GARD) contract (about 1 or 2 years) must be included

in the scope of supply

Ifthe multiple cootract model is applied, the đã sion into lots must be limited and respect the natural entities The furnace and boiler, for instance, must be

in one lot However, unless the client has experienced personne! with firm knowledge of procurement and waste incineration skill, itis strongly advisable to dlivide the lots into no more than two main supplies:

‘complete machinery and structural

“The operation contract has been applied where municipalities wish to free resources from opera

tional duties or where it has been more economical 0 let an experienced private contractor operate and

si

‘maintain the plant, It i also applicable where the

client has established a plant according to one of the

aforementioned models but wants a diferent con-

tractor for example, local company—to operate

the plant

"There ae several variants for using private contrac-

tors in designing, financing, and operating incinera-

tion plants In one common variant of privatization,

supervision and control of private contractors is per

formed by highly skilled clients (municipalities!

authorities) In particular, the client must have highly

skilled legal, contractual, and financial specialists to set

‘up contracts for implementing, operating, owning, and

financing incineration plants with private contractors

Detaled and professional contracts must be estab-

lished to protect the client’ obligation to provide ef-

cient, affordable, and environmentally sustainable

‘waste management services tothe community

In general, the client loses financial and technical

‘maneuverability when entering into long-term service

contracts with private contractors, but on the other

hand, financial resources and staff are liberated for

other purposes The client must aso offer guarantees

con the supply of waste, sale of energy, and payments to

the contractor (put or pay contracts) The put or pay

contacts are the contractor’ insurance agtinst

increased net treatment cost if msjor preconditions

fail—for example, miniasum waste supply or calorific

value of the waste (For information on the conse-

quences when preconditions fai, se chapter 4—par-

ticularly figure 4.4.)

Municipal Solid Waste Incineration

‘The client will also be asked to issue guarantees for the servicing of the loans used by the contractor to finance building the plant

Deciding whether to contract out the establishment,

‘operation, financing, or ownership of incineration plants to private contractors should not he taken light-

ly It is important ro weigh consciously the advantages and constraints of all options aguinst the local cond tions—in particular, the client’ creditworthiness and resources in tems of capital and stalf skills as well as,

‘the actual legal framework for publicly monitoringand controlling a private contractor,

Authorities Authorities responsible for control, monitoring, and enforcement must be present to ensure proper plant

‘operation and compliance with the environmental standards against which the incineration plant was approved and intended These authorities must be independent of the ownership and operation of the plant

‘About once a month, the plant management must submit reports on the average flue gas emission values, amounts and composition of residues, flue gas eten- tion times,and other operational parameters (for more information, see part 2) The report must clearly state allexceeded limits and explain thera,

Based on these reports, correspondence with the plant management, and inspections, the authorities must take proper action ifthe plant is not operated in

an environmentally sae way

4

Key Issues

‘Waste incineration involves high investment costs with

a large share of foreign currency and high operating

and maintenance costs, Hence, the resulting net treat-

‘ment cost pe metric ton of waste incinerated is rather

hhigh compared to the alternative (usualy, landing)

Depending on the actual costs (which are sensitive

to the sizeof the plant) and revenues from the sale of

energy, the net treatment cost per metric ton of waste

incinerated will normally range from USS25-$100 (in

1998) with an average of about USS50 Depending on

the quality (for example, number of membrane lyers

and leachate treatment) of the actual landfill site, the

net cost of landfilling ranges from USS10-S40

"Thus, higher net treatment cost is a critical issue

when considering implementing a wast incineration

plant, Financing can be done in terms of tipping fees.a

‘general levy, public subsidies, and combinations there

‘of, However, the ability and willingness to pay should

bbe considered thoroughly to avoid the risk of uncon-

trolled dumping or burning is latent

Key Criteria

¢-¢ S There isa stable planning environment (18

620 years) with relatively constant or pre~

ictable prices for consumables spare parts,

posal of residues, and sale of energy Furthermore, the capital cost (large share

of foreign currency) can be predicted

Financing the net treatment cost_ must

ensure a waste stream as intended ia the

overall waste management system

Consequently the waste incineration tipping

as

Incineration Plant Economics and Finance

fee must belower than (or atleast no greater than) the fe atthe Fandfil Willingness and bility to pay must be adresse,

⁄ Foreign currency isavalable for purchasing critical spare parts

‘Toe economically feasible, the capacity of the individual incineration lines should be atleast 240 Vd (10 Uh).A plant should have

at least two individual lines

When surplus energy isto be used for dis- trict heating the incineration plant mst be located neat an existing grid to avoid costly new transmission systems,

1 regular market for the sale of hot water (strict heating oF similar) ot steam is pre sent, the plant should be based on the sale cof heat only—both in terms of technical

«complexity and economic feasibility A cer- tain extent of cooling to the environment

<during the warm season may be preferable tocoslier solutions

Economics

‘The mass buening principle with a moving grate is applied in the following economic analysis and esti- _mate ofthe investment costs forthe machinery This is the most widespread and well-tested technology for incinerating MSW Furthermore, other technologies cannot be recommended for incineration of normal MSW (see part 2 of this guide)

Investment Costs,

The actual inveament cost fora waste incineration plant

depends on a wide range of factors, especially the size

{capacity} ofthe plant—the number of metric tons per

year or day and the coresponding ower calorific value of

‘the waste, Lo-capacity plants are relatively more expen-

sive than high-capacity plants in terms of investment cost

per metric ton of capacity

The machinery (and hence, the investment east)

pens on the type of energy production, ranging fom

simple cooling of ll excess heat (no energy sale) to com-

bined heat and power production, Furthermore the equip

ment necessiry or uc gas cling isto a great extent

termined by the desited or required emission quality

level, which consequently influences the investment cass

The investment costs asa function of the annual (and

daly) capacity for atypical new wast incineration plant

axe estimated in figure 4.1- lower calorific vale ofthe

waste of Meg (2150 kcal) is assumed asthe design

basis A higher calorific value wil increase the actual

investment costs and vie versa

Furthermore, the folowing preconditions core

sponding toa typical plant configuration in South and

Southeast Asa appl

+ Numbeofincineration ines The minima capacity of

cach incineration lines 240 ¥d (10 Uh) and he axe

trau 720 ui (30) Thee sould eat st wo

incineratontnes—so plans should beatlastapprox

imaely 500 vd When calculating the necessary daly

capacity based onthe anal dimensioning wast ol

wumesan avail ate (number of operating hours a

yer) of 7500 is presumed Furthermore, 5 percent

exces capacity is presued to cover condtonssuchas

seasonal variations

+ Brengy production The plant produces steam primar-

Jy for electricity production but iit also is involved in

‘combined heat and power production or sale of eee

trictyand steam, excessheat cooled away: Hence, the

plant isequipped wth steam boilers turbine units, and

<condensing/cooling unit

+ ‘The total investment cost can be reduced by approx-

mately 30 percentf the plants equipped fr hot water

production only

Municipal Solid Waste ncineaton + Hue gas cleaning The plant is equipped with dey ot semidey scrubbers and a subsequent electrostatic pre- cipitator or bag-house fier t exercise mediums level emission contro

‘The total investment cost can be reduced by approxi-

‘mately 10 percent if the plant i equipped for compliance

‘with basic-level emission contro However ifthe planthas

to comply with advanced-level emission contol the total investment cost mus increase approximately 15 perent

In figure 4.1, the average investment cost pet dally capacity in metric tons is calculated according to the aforementioned preconditions

Normallyateas 50 percent of the investment costs for

‘the machinery part ofthe plant has tobe covered by fr ign currency

Operating and Maintenance Casts

‘The operating and maintenance costs comprise:

+ Fixed operating costs Cost of administration and salaries + Variable operating costs

Cost of chemicals for the fue gas cleaning system Costof electricity (ithe plantisequipped withasteam turbine and a turbine/generator se, there willbea net production of electricity)

(Cost of water and handling of waste water Gost of reside disposal

+ Maintenance costs Cost to maintain the machinery (suchas spare parts) Cost to:maintain the bulldings

Fig lesen Coss

Incineration Plant eonomies aed Finance

“The fixed operating costs depend heavily on the

umber of employees, the percentage of skilled and

unskilled workers and engineers, and the local salary

level The annual fixed operating cost for plants in

South and Southeast Asia are estimated at 2 percent of

the total investment

‘The variable operating costs will oa certain extent

Alepend on the spevfic fue gas cleaning system But

‘more important, the actual cost of disposal of the

resides from the flue gas cleaning has a strong influ

tence on the variable operating costs Based on a dis

posal cost of approximately USS100 per metric ton of

APC (Air Pollution Control) residue and USS per

metric fon of bottom ash reused of disposed of, the

‘overall variable operating costs are estimated at USSI2

per metric ton of waste incinerated

According to customary practice, the annual mainte

nance costs are estimated at I percent ofthe investment

forthe civil works plus 2.5 percent of the investment for

the machinery

Figure 4.2 presents the resulting annual operating

and maintenance costs The figures are based on the

actual amount of waste treated andthe investment cost

discussed earlier In addition, the annual capital casts

snd the total costs of incineration are indicated The

figure wsesa real rate of interest of percent anda plan-

sing period of 15 years

Sale of Energy

The sale of energy is significant element inthe econ-

fomy of waste incineration In extreme cases, the

income from energy sale can coverup to 80 percent to

‘90 percent ofthe total costs figure around 40 percent

Figure 2 Coe ncinrtion pre

However it is important to remember that the main purpose ofan incineration plants treatment resulting

in a volume reduction and in rendering the waste harmless,

The potential energy production—and income from energy sale—depends heavily on the energy con- tent (net calorific value) of the waste In table 41, rep- resentative energy production per metic ton of waste incinerated is listed for heat production, electricity production, and combined heat and power production (see part 2 of this guide for further information) Furthermore, the potential income from sale of energy {gstated-hased on heat price of USS15/MWhand an electricity price of USS35/MWh

‘The specific energy demand must be taken into con- sieration—especialy for heat production only Unless the district eating network is relatively large, itis nor-

‘mally necessary to coo off some ofthe produced hest

in the summer period, thus reducing the annual income from sale of heat

If production and sale of process steam are part of, the overall concept, this income must be evaluated according toa specifi sles agreement The income in terms of US dollars per metric ton of steam supplied depends especially on the pressure and temperature of the steam,

Calculation of Net Treatment Cost The net treatment cost (balanced tipping fee) can be

<aleulated based onthe estimates of costs and potential income from sale of energy Using the preconditions stated inthe previous sections, the following figure can

‘eapplied fora rough estimate of thenet costs of waste lacineration

‘The income rom sale of energy is based on thelower calorific value (LCV) of the waste of MU’ In case the LCV is lower than 9 Mik, the income from sale of energy is reduced, resulting in a higher net teatment

By assuming an annual amount of wast suitable for {incineration pe capita of 0.23 metric tons (0.7 ks/capi- tafday), the resulting annual cost per capita canbe esti

‘mated Dependingo thesize ofthe plant, this cost will

$20/capitalyear This is the treatment cost only and

doesnot include the collection of waste recycling sys-

tems, and other wast service

‘Asan example, the economy for an MSW incinera-

tion plant with an annual capacity of 300,000 metric

tons of waste (approximately 1,000 metre tons/day) i

‘outing in Bxample 4.1, Furthermore, the economic

consequences of failing preconditions (waste supply

and LCV) are analy

“The calclition o the net treatment cost in this cxampleis based ona lower calorific ale ofthe waste

of 9 Mkg Furthermore, the incineration plant i dimensioned for an annual waste suppy of 30,000 nner tons These preconditions together with the {sumptions stated inthe example result in an ext tated net treatment cost of USS43/metrc ton However in ete one or more ofthe rl precn- ditions fail (especialy waste suppiy andor caloric

‘alc of the waste) the incineration plant wl be oper ited “off design” Ifthe waste supply or the calorific

‘ales wer han forecasted the stl et treatment

‘cost may be severely influenced Figure 4.5 graphically

depicts the sensitivity ofthe ealeuated net teatment con

“The old linein the figure shows the effect oF vary- ing waste ppl onthe net tretment ca, The graph

Incineration Plant Economics and Finance

‘Example 41 Calculation of Ne Treatment Cost

Annual operating cost “halen ad lars

30 ml

Dispos fess (100 USS/merc on) 10 ml

~ Dispeuseofbowomash(SUSS/metieton) G4 mill

Figure Sensi he Ne Teme ost

‘ies

shows that ifthe actual waste supply i only 200,000

etic tons/year (point B), the net treatment cost will

increase fom USS to USS7S/metric ton the waste

supply slower than 20,000 metritons/year, the plant

cannot be operated continuously

‘The high sensitivity ofthe net treatment cost isa

consequence of the diferent nature ofthe costs All

fixed costs must be financed independently of the

amount of waste treated Only the variable part ofthe

‘operating and maintenance cost willbe reduced when, the waste supply decreases, but atthe same time, the income from energy sale will decrease,

In case the calorific value ofthe actual waste sup- plied is only 6 Mi/kg (point A), the net treatment cost will increase from USS43 to USS53/mettc ton

‘This sensitivity analysis stresses the importance of a thorough, reliable waste survey and forecast

Financing

‘The primary sources of financing for incineration plant facilities are fre income from the user popula- tion, income from sale of energy and heat, and public subsidies These financing forms are not mutually exclusive and are often used in combination

Fee income from user population: Ideally, the annual net capital and operating costs ofthe plant are financed largely through user fes from house- hholds and industry Public commitments ate nec-

‘essary t0 allow the incineration facility autonomy defining fee schedules, which again will allow

the facility to be self-financing that is, revenves

‘must cover all operating and maintenance cost,

including depreciation and financing expenses

Household service fees are generally collected

together with taxes for other municipal services

and are based on average waste amounts generated

by various categories of household (apartments,

single-family homes, and so on) These service fees

represent a reasonably secure income strean,

depending on the local governments success in

collecting local taxes

Gate or tipping fees are commonly used for large

industrial customers, who pay 2 fee for waste

delivered directly to the incineration facility

‘There isa greater risk that this waste will not be

collected, which causes plant income to vary

“Stray” customers may seek alternative, less

expensive, waste treatment through landfilling, or

they illegally dump or burn waste, Controls must

bbe in place to ensure that sufficient vohimes are

delivered o the facility to cover capital and oper

ating costs, Iti often necessary for local authori

tiesto commit to delivering aceeprable minimum

levels of waste to the incineration facility before

bank loans are financed,

Public controls or incentive are necessary to com:

pel the customers to use the incineration facility,

‘Measures may include directly billing industrial

‘customers based on estimated waste generation as

an alternative to gate fees; capping competing

lands; equalizing costs through increased land

filling tipping fees or subsidized incineration fees;

and fines for using landiil faciltes, legal dump-

ing, and burning The agreement of local govern

‘ment to set up and enforce controls is critical in

evaluating project risk

Income from sale of energy or heat: While the sale

of energy or heat is not a necessary component of

an incineration plant, it can significantly reduce

net annual facility expenditures A stable demand

for plant-generated energy can in some cases be

critical to securing plant financing, and agree-

Municipal Solid Waste Incineration ments for selling energy t0 distributors may be a financing prerequisite

‘Obviously ow-cost altemative energy sourcesinche region decrease the value of enengy sales by offiet- ting annual costs Additionally, an unstable ener market makes forecasting of operating cost dificult and increases the rsk of facility financing

Public subsidies: Public subsidies in various forms from local government or donor organizations can decrease the user's tariff burden, Subsidies may include grant financing, favorable term loans for plant facilities, or general tax eves, Subsidies cam be financed from the budget or linked to environmen: tal exes

While fee subsidies generated by general tx levies take the fiscal burden from the user population, the bbarden is placed on local government and may lead

to inefficient plant operations Fee subsidies may

‘reduce the management’ incentives to reduce costs and can erode professional management practices

“The financing structure mstallow the ity to pro idea service that the consumer can and will pay for the investment progran i viable only to the extent that

ít lao affordable Generally, 3 percent to 4 percent of the household income isthe maximum acceptable level for the waste fe by international development banks To help “sell any increase in waste fees, they should coin- cide witha service improvement or reduced environ-

‘mental impact

Indeveloping countries itis eeommended to survey the populations willingness and ability to pay as part of the financial and economic project evaluation Such a survey mast be carefally designed determine the actur

al and real incomes and expenditures ofthe waste gen- erators There may bea considerable diffrence berween oficial and actual incomes, as wel as differences among household incomes It may be necessary—and in some

‘countries also a tradition-—to provide specific conces- sions to pensioners, soldiers, war veterans, the ane ployed students, and s on

Average tariffs must e fixed at sucha level that cash needs are covered, including—where possible—an

Incineration Plan Bonomies and Face

adequate selffinancing margin, but the average taritt

should not exceed accepted affordability standards

Investments are not sustainable if the wser population

finds them unaffordable and seeks undesirable alterna-

tives to waste handling and treatment

‘The service population's ability o pay for incinera-

tion services is a key factor in determining plant size

and treatment capacity Long-term forecasts of house-

hold income ad the financial situation of local indus-

ties are necessary to determine affordability

(Cost-Benefit Assessment

‘The estimate and calculations inthis chapter draw the

conclasion tha the net treatment cost per metric ton of

‘wast incinerated is normally a least trce the net cost

of the alternative controlled landfling, At the same

time, when applying waste incineration, the economic

riskin case of project failure is high because of

+The high investment cost and the need for foreign

+ The complexity ofthe technical installations, which

requires qualified and skilled staff, availabilty of

spare pats, and so on

+ Special requirements in terms of quantity and com-

positon (for example, minimum net calorific va)

+ Thenced fora comprchensiveand mature waster

‘agement sytem and institutional setup in general

3” + Stable energy demand and prices

By carrying outa cost-benefit assessment (CBA),the Dhigher net reatment cost (and higher rsk) must be jus tified forthe specific waste incineration project before proceeding The CBA should be performed in the fea- sibility phase (see chapter 5)

The outcome and content of the CBA strongly depend on the local socio-economic environment, Some ofthe elements to be considered ae:

+ Waste transport distance + Land use and land reclamation + Cty development and tourism + Environmental impact of waste disposal (short and long tem)

+ ‘Technology transfer and raise inthe evel of work- cers'education and skills

+ Local jobs|

+ Sustainability of energy generation, Sometimes politcal issues also playa major role in deciding whether to implement waste incineration—as

‘many countries would like to be identified with this technology

Ifthe CBA is negative, disposal of wasteatwell-engi-

‘neered and wel-operated landfill is an economically and environmentally sound and sustainable solution Indeed, upgrading existing landfill capacity and qual

ty soften the better alternative

5 TheProject Cycle

Key Issues

‘he project cycle for implementing a wast incinera

tion plant involves three main phases: feasibility, pro-

ject preparation, and project implementation, After

finishing one phase, major politcal decisions have to

bbe made regarding whether to continue to the next

phase The phases themselves contain a number of

‘minor steps also involving the decision makers

Figure 5.1 outlines the steps The cumulative time

from the project start is indicated after the duration

of the individual steps, From the launch of the pro-

ject idea, it takes approximately six years before the

plant opens, assuming there are no delays

Key Criteria

⁄ ý ý A xkiled, independent consultant with

‘experience in similar projects should be

‘employed atthe onset ofthe planning

The public perception of waste incinera

tion should be taken into consideration

‘The public should be involved in and

informed about all phases—but particu-

larly the feasibility and project prep

Feasibility Phase

‘The feasibility phase comprises a prefesibility and»

feasibility study A political decision needs to be

‘made berween them to determine whether itis worth

progressing to the more detailed investigations,

‘The main considerations ofthe feasibility phase

are presented in figure 5.2, The content for the two

3

‘components is about the same, However, the pr feasibility study will often be based mainly on exist- ing data and literature references Hence, the pr feasibility study may be regarded as only a preliminary assessment ofthe applicability of waste incineration for the waste from the area in question and of the existing institutional framework The feasibility study requires an in-depth invest

of all the local preconditions and a sufficiently detailed conceptual design of the entice plant, transmission systems, and necessary infrastructure for a reliable economic assessment of the entire project

Developing an MSW incineration project requires the combined skills of a variety of experts, most of whom are not available locally The project initiator should therefore consider hiring an independent consultant to work closely together with local orga- nizations and staff This consultant wil offer experi- fence guined from similar projects and also act a8 a

‘mediator in case of conflicting local interests

‘The feasibility reports valuable tool forthe dec- sion makers, not only when deciding whether to p ceed with the project but also in assessing the entire institutional framework The ideas and proposals

‘outlined in the fesiblity phase wil be transformed into concrete project agreements and documents in the following phase,

‘The objectives are to ensure thatthe accepted ideas from the feasibility study materialize