Tài liệu Research " INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INFUSION: A MOTIVATION APPROACH " docx

The results support the effect of the interaction of Consequence Expectancy and Consequence Valuation, Personal Expectancy, and Enactment Cost Expectancy upon Individual Motivation Towar

THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF BUSINESS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INFUSION: A MOTIVATION APPROACH

Degree Awarded:

Summer Semester, 2002

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

300 North Zeeb Road P.O Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Mi 48106-1346

The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Jarvis B Moore II

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—

[ teers G_ Eh Side

Pamela Perrewe Committee Member Approved:

T SH16 Melvin T Stith, Dean, College of Business

To Elena Karahanna without whose knowledge, guidance, assistance,

and seemingly unlimited patience,

| would never have completed this dissertation

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List Of Figures oo ccsesssssssessessssssssrsscsesusasatssessissevesseeeeeseeecec viii

1 INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH OVERVIEW Ò 1

Construct Operationalization and Validation _ _ 46

4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (continued)

Measurement Model: Internal Consistency and Discriminant Validity 74

Motivational State Q nnHneeeeeeeece 96 Dissonance Sub-Analysis ỎỒDD._ 102

6 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATION OF RESULTS Ủ.ỦỎÔẺỒỖÖỒÖ5 105

Discussion of Results 105 WPR Understanding and the Moderating Effect ofIME 106 Antecedents to Motivation toward WPR Enactment 108 Direct Effects of Expectancies oo —”.AI 113

Levels of Use Adapted from Hall & Loucks (1977) 8

A Comparison of Expectancy Within Work Motivation, Social Cognitive, and Social Behavior Theories 20

Construct lems_ Q0 46 Pilot Test Reliabiliies Ằ HH 64

Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis 76 Management Support Items Rotated Component Matrix 77

Interconstruct Correlation and Composite Reliability 83

Means of Motivation States ;,— Ằ 98

Results of ANOVA for Level of Motivation ._ — 99

Results of Tukey Pairwise Comparisons_ 100

Table 5.16 Results of ANOVA for Behavioral Intent DĐ 100 Table 5.17 Results of Tukey Pairwise Comparisons_ 101 Table 5.18 Dissonance Sub - Analysis nu 103

Vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 - Conceptual Model of the Impact of Motivation on IT Infusion 11

Figure 2.2 - Extended Vroom Expectancy Model of Motivation D5 + 15 Figure 2.3 - The Theory of Planned Behavior sò 17 Figure 2.4 - Conceptual Model of the Impact of Motivation on IT Infusion 21

Figure 2.5 - Conceptual Model of the Impact of Motivation on IT infusion 22

Figure 2.6 - Model of a Work Domain 24

Figure 3.1 - Research Model 34

Figure 5.1 - PLS Results Do 89 Figure 5.2 - PLS Results with Direct Effects on Behavioral Intent 97

ABSTRACT

IT infusion has been the subject of scant research and existing studies have been largely at the organization level of analysis This research examines the role of individual motivation as a determinant of !T infusion at the individual level of analysis A model is developed that synthesizes work motivation, social cognition, and attitude/behavior theories and that explains the affect of motivation

on the relationship between work process reconceptualization (WPR) and IT infusion The dimensions of WPR and their relationship to IT infusion are also examined

The results support the effect of the interaction of Consequence Expectancy and Consequence Valuation, Personal Expectancy, and Enactment Cost Expectancy upon Individual Motivation Toward Work Process Reconceptualization Enactment Post Hoc analysis also shows the direct effect

of Consequence Expectancy, Environmental Expectancy and Personal Expectancy upon Behavioral Intent Motivational States are discussed and Dissonance States are examined

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH OVERVIEW

Introduction

A frequent motivation for recent information systems (IS) research has been the perceived lack of organizational productivity gains resulting from an increased investment in information technology (IT) (e.g., Agarwal and Prasad, 1997; Goodhue and Thompson, 1995) One stream of literature examining this phenomenon has focused on user attitudes and beliefs as determinants of information system acceptance and utilization (Davis, 1989: Mathieson, 1991: Taylor and Todd, 1995) Clearly IT must be used if it is to have a positive impact, and implicit in this research stream is the notion that increased IT usage will lead

phenomenon has focused upon the extent and nature of that usage The fundamental premise of this research stream is that there are distinct levels of {T usage and that higher levels of usage result in improved levels of performance (Hall and Loucks, 1977: Cooper and Zmud, 1990) Only at the highest level of usage, termed infusion, is an organization able to fully leverage its IT investment (Saga and Zmud, 1994) These complementary streams of research are appealing in the simplicity of their arguments, i.e., using IT more, and at a higher, more productive, level, will lead to increased performance

Information technologies are often adopted at the organization level, but the individual is given the discretion by management to determine whether, and

to what extent, to use the IT in support of the individual's work processes (Silver, 1991; Silver, 1990) The inherent maileability of many advanced information technologies suggests that users can, and will, use the IT at differing levels of sophistication The above research streams Suggest, therefore, that at the organization level, the maximum benefit from an IT investment is derived when 1.) all individuals that can benefit from use of the IT actually use it (IT usage) and, 2.) they use it at its highest and most productive level given their respective work processes (level of IT usage)

What, then, can an organization do to positively influence individual usage and level of use? This question can be rephrased into two inquiries - what motivates an individual to increase his usage of IT, and what motivates an individual to increase his level of usage?

Prior research has focused scant attention on the individual level of analysis and even less on individual motivation Yet, the queries raised above Suggest, and this dissertation posits, that individual motivation plays a significant role in determining IT usage and level of usage IT infusion is a complex phenomenon and our understanding of the actual dynamics involved in the infusion of an IT is at an early stage of development (Saga and Zmud, 1997) However, the results obtained by Saga and Zmud (1997) suggest that two constructs bear further investigation The first is the multi-dimensional nature of infusion incorporating the dimensions of extended use, integrative use and

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emergent use The second is the intervening effect of task redesign upon IT infusion As will be discussed in Chapter 2, task redesign can be seen as being comprised first of a reconceptualization of the work processes required to achieve given outcomes, and secondly by an enactment of that reconceptualization

Purpose of the Research This research has two primary purposes Firstly, it seeks to expand our understanding of the nature of Work Process Reconceptualization (WPR) and its resulting effect on IT infusion For the Purposes of this dissertation, WPR is defined as the restructuring (redesign) of core work processes to fully utilize increased IT capabilities This dissertation posits that WPR, and its subsequent enactment, is a necessary condition to achieving infusion Secondly, it builds upon existing research regarding IT infusion and seeks to explore the nature and impact of individual motivation on IT infusion Examination of the impact of individual motivation to engage in those behaviors that result in WPR and its enactment will enrich our understanding of the dynamics involved in the infusion

of an IT It is hoped that this will spur further research in this area with the ultimate goal of providing prescriptive measures for organizations to utilize to achieve the sought after productivity gains

Research Questions

While there has been some research focusing the nature and determinants of infusion, it has focused on the organization level of analysis

The instant research seeks to broaden our understanding of infusion by examining this construct at the individual level of analysis

The first research question looks at the nature of the relationship between

an individual's cognitive understanding of WPR, and his motivation to enact that WPR, upon IT infusion

1 How does an individual's understanding of WPR and his

motivation toward WPR enactment impact IT infusion?

The second research question addresses the determinants of the individual's motivation to enact the WPR and their effect upon the motivational state of the individual

WPR enactment and how do they impact the individual's

motivation toward WPR enactment?

Research Overview The research will consist of the following steps:

The research model is used as a framework to develop specific measures to assess the impact of individual motivation upon the infusion of a given IT application within a particular context

The measures thus developed are pilot tested at small number of sites

Empirical support for the relationships proposed in the research model are explored through statistical analysis

Conclusions are drawn and implications are presented

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Steps one and two are addressed in chapter two, while step three is completed in chapter three Steps four and five are discussed in chapter four, along with a discussion of the research methodology Steps six and seven are presented in chapter five Step eight is contained in chapter 5 and chapter six wherein the findings of the research are also presented as well as limitations of the study and suggestions for future research

Contributions This research contributes to the discipline by developing and testing a model that explains the effects of WPR and individual motivation on IT infusion at

an individual level of analysis The model is carefully synthesized through the integration of an extensive body of existing empirical research with model relationships tested using Partial Least Squares modeling techniques In addition, antecedents to individual motivation are identified and their impact upon the individual's motivational state are examined and tested

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL MODEL AND SUPPORTING LITERATURE

Overview This chapter begins with a brief review of the post-implementation processes that culminate in IT infusion within organizations and continues with a detailed discussion of IT infusion and a review of the germane individual motivation literature A conceptual model is then presented which depicts the relationship between IT infusion and individual motivation

IT Post-Implementation Processes Cooper and Zmud (1990) introduced a six-stage sequential model of IT implementation (see also Kwon and ¿mud, 1987) consisting of initiation, adoption, adaptation, acceptance, routinization, and infusion This model recognizes the complexity of post-adoption behaviors by extending a previously posited three-stage implementation model (Thompson, 1969; Pierce and Delbecq, 1977) consisting of initiation, adoption and implementation By deconstructing implementation into four distinct stages, Cooper and Zmud (1990) more fully recognized the complexity of post-adoption behaviors inherent in IT implementation The first three of the model's six stages (initiation, adoption and adaptation) culminate in the implementation of an IT through ¡ts acquisition/development and installation along with the revision or development

of organizational procedures The latter three stages (acceptance, routinization,

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and infusion) are referred to herein as post-implementation behaviors Acceptance is reflected in the commitment of organizational members to use the

IT Routinization is reflected by the adjustment of organizational governance Systems to account for the IT such that the IT is not perceived as new or out of the ordinary Lastly, infusion occurs as IT applications become more deeply imbedded with the organization's work processes and results when the IT application is used within the Organization to its fullest potential

IT Infusion

IT infusion is defined as the process of embedding an IT application deeply and comprehensively within an individual's or organization’s work systems (Cooper and Zmud, 1990: Kwon, 1987; Sullivan, 1985) This definition, while useful, is seen as somewhat vague for guiding IS research (Saga and Zmud, 1997) and researchers are only beginning to explore the actual dynamics

that lead to IT infusion

Hall and Loucks (1977) developed a schema for conceptualizing levels of use at the individual level of analysis as seen in Table 2.1 To achieve higher levels of use, the user refines his understanding of both the innovation and its application to a specific task set, given continued interaction with the innovation, information received from others, and the necessity to coordinate interdependent work tasks with other users Building on this schema, it is generally accepted that most successful IT applications are enhanced or reconfigured over time reflecting an increased organizational understanding of the IT, as a result of direct experience with the IT, and the work System it supports Latter revisions of

the IT application are seen to represent higher “levels of use” (Hall and Loucks, 1977; Bayer and Melone, 1989) in which the IT is used in an increasingly sophisticated manner Three such levels of infusion have been identified — extended use, integrative use and emergent use Extended use necessitates using more of an IT's features in order to perform amore comprehensive set of Table 2.1 — Levels of Use Adapted from Hall and Loucks (1977)

with the innovation

and explores it value

Disjointed and superficial use results from stepwise attempt to master only those tasks required for specific purpose

in ongoing use Little thought is given to improving use

to achieve a collective impact on clients

7 Renewal

modifications to increase impact on clients, examines new developments and explores new goals

workflow linkages among a set of work tasks Emergent use requires using the

IT to accomplish tasks that were not feasible or recognized prior to application of the IT to the work system (Saga and Zmud, 1994)

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Within an organizational context, the “levels of use” concept suggests that

to fully leverage an organization’ s IT investments, core work processes must be reengineered to account for increasing technological capabilities (Davenport and Short, 1990; Hammer, 1990; King, 1991) Saga and Zmud (1994) found that IT infusion increases when organization members restructure work processes so as

to achieve a better fit with IT Capabilities As is apparent from the definitions of the three levels of infusion described above, each discrete level of infusion involves a further reconceptualization of both the work processes and how the IT

is used in their performance Therefore, for IT infusion to be achieved, the individual must reconceptualize his work processes and utilize the IT to its fullest extent in the performance of those reconceptualized work processes It is important to note that this restructuring requires not only a reconceptualization of the work processes, but a/so the subsequent enactment of that

process reconceptualization (WPR), is a necessary but not sufficient condition for IT

restructuring of core work processes to fully utilize increased IT capabilities WPR is distinguished from business process redesign (BPR) in that the former relates to the reconceptualization of work Processes at the individual rather than the organizational level And, as is the case with BPR, WPR must be followed by the implementation or enactment of the reconceptualization IT infusion cannot

be achieved merely by the cognitive reconceptualization of the work processes,

but, rather, it is achievable only through the enactment of that reconceptualization

WPR ¡is seen as differing from adaptation both temporally and experientially Adaptation refers to that Stage of the implementation process during which the IT is initially deployed Organization members are trained in the _use of the IT and any revised procedures that result from its use (Cooper and Zmud, 1990) Subsequently, organization members use of the iT progresses through mechanical and then routine levels (Hall and Loucks, 1977) culminating

in a stable pattern of use with few if any changes and little thought to modifying usage WPR is posited to occur subsequent to routinization and as a result of an individual's experience with the IT and an expanded knowledge of the IT and the related work processes

This dissertation suggests that there are two fundamental impediments to achieving IT infusion The first impediment is that WPR is seen as a cognitively

task/outcome related knowledge and a sufficient level of IT related knowledge such that there is an ability to recognize and act upon a WPR Opportunity If such an absorptive capacity (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990) is initially absent, then the individual must undertake task knowledge, outcome knowledge, and/or IT knowledge building behaviors if WPR is to result

The second impediment to achieving infusion, which constitutes the objective of the current research, is individual inertia Infusion is, by definition, a change based outcome and it is achieved only when WPR is enacted by the

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individual Hence, to overcome individual inertia and the resistance to change inherent in IT infusion-producing behaviors, the individual must be motivated to enact change-producing behaviors To be so motivated, the individual must perceive that there is a net benefit to be gained from engaging in and enacting

motivation to 1) engage in such effortful behaviors as may be required, and 2) to endure the discomfiture and warrant the risk that is attendant with WPR related change Figure 2.1 shows a high level conceptual model for the study

Individual Motivation

Figure 2.1 - Conceptual Model of the Impact of Motivation on IT Infusion

Theories of motivation suggest that individual perceptions about the nature of the reconceptualization required, along with perceptions about the IT, and perceptions about the job/environment are seen as determining an individual's perceived benefits and expectancy estimations, and, thus, one’s level

of motivation

Individual Motivation

Motivation theory seeks to explain the psychological processes and conditions that influence the initiation, direction, persistence, and magnitude of behaviors (Katzell and Thompson, 1990; Steers and Lawler, 1987; Steers and

Porter, 1974, Vroom, 1964) Three streams of research have examined the issue from differing, yet related, perspectives — work motivation theory, social cognition theory, and theories of social behavior This dissertation suggests that these three theoretical perspectives can be unified into an integrated framework based on expectancy The advantage of such an integration is that it provides a parsimonious framework for understanding individual motivation within an organizational setting

Integrated Expectancy Framework Expectancy is defined as the probability estimate that a behavior (or set of behaviors) will lead to some consequence The Organizational Behavior literature suggests three distinct expectancies: personal expectancies, environmental expectancies, and consequence expectancies

Personal expectancy (Cady, Perrewe, and Gist, 1997) is an individual's assessment of his capabilities to exhibit the necessary behaviors to produce a type of performance outcome, holding the environment constant For reasons that are discussed subsequently, it is distinct from self-efficacy in that the latter includes both personal as well as environmental expectancies (Gist and Mitchell,

1992)

Environmental expectancy is an individual's estimate of the probability that environmental contingencies are conducive to the accomplishment of a

appraise their environment Separately from the self, i.e., internal/external attribution theory (Weiner, 1985) and that the environment may play a greater

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role in motivation than personal expectancy in some cases (Gist and Mitchell,

1992)

Consequence expectancy is an individual's assessment of the probability that a consequence, positive or negative, will result from the quality and/or quantity of a particular performance outcome and is well documented in the work motivation literature (Kanfer, 1990) This term is preferred over the commonly used reward expectancy because of the potential for confusion Surrounding the concept of “negative” rewards Consequence expectancy is concerned with the degree to which the reinforcements are linked to the quality and/or quantity of performance and does not include the value placed thereon The expectation of receiving the reward is an externally determined perception whereas the value of the reward is a separate internally driven construct (Cady, Perrewe, and Gist, 1997) herein termed consequence valuation

In simple terms, these expectancies respectively address with the questions of “Can | do it?”, “Will the organization let me succeed?” (help, encourage, efc as opposed to hinder), and “If | do succeed, will | get the reward (consequence)?” Consequence valuation, on the other hand, addresses the question of “Do ! want the reward (consequence) and, if so, how much?’ It refers

to the individual's perception of the desirability of some consequence This construct recognizes that it is not only necessary for an individual to believe that

a given consequence will occur as a result of specific behaviors, but also that the individual values that outcome sufficiently so as to be motivated to action

Support for the Integrated Expectancy Framework

A careful examination of the theoretical underpinnings of work motivation theory, social cognition theory and the theories of social behavior demonstrates the comprehensive nature of the framework Each theory is discussed below and support for the framework is developed

Work Motivation Theory

Work motivation theory has been the subject of extensive research Vroom's VIE theory (1964) posited that a person's action toward a goal is a function of the desirability of the goal, or valence, the relationship of the goal toa Satisfying outcome, or instrumentality, and the belief that a behavior will result in goal attainment or expectancy Subsequent research (Campbell, et a/., 1970: Galbraith and Cummings, 1967; Graen, 1969; Porter and Lawler, 1968)) extended Vroom's theories by separating expectancy into two constructs The first, termed E71, reflects an individual's estimated probability of performing a given task The second, or E2, reflects the individual's estimated probability that performing the task will lead to an expected reward

Figure 2.2 depicts the expanded Vroom expectancy model An individual's effort is determined by his desire for a given outcome (valence) and his expectancy about being able to Successfully achieve a given performance (E1) and his expectancy that this performance is instrumental in achieving the valued outcome (E2) Thus, we can see that work motivation theory suggests that motivation is determined by an individual's consequence valuation (valence), personal expectancy (E1) and consequence expectancy (E2)

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E1 AND E2

EXPECTANCIES

ee EFFORT {| »! PERFORMANCE |.) OUTCOME

Figure 2.2 - Extended Vroom Expectancy Model of Motivation

Social Cognition Theory

In addition to work motivation theory, social cognition theory also describes the role of personal expectancy on one’s behavior In the late 1970's Bandura advanced what is now termed social cognitive theory based on the construct of self-efficacy expectancy (1977) Self-efficacy expectancy is defined

as the cognitive appraisal of one’s Capability to perform a task Bandura contends that individuals make choices based upon their self-perceived abilities relative to a given situation Two expectancies emerge from this: efficacy expectancy and outcome expectancy Efficacy expectancy, a concept akin to personal expectancy, captures the individual's perception of his own capabilities, while outcome expectancy is the external assessment of the task’s requirements

Gecas (1989) states that efficacy expectancy is a belief about one’s competence, while outcome expectancy is a belief about one’s environment Bandura further posits that people evaluate the self apart from situations (environment) and they evaluate Situations apart from the self While Bandura

has argued that the two expectancies can be subsumed under self-efficacy, research suggests otherwise In a Study by Maddux, Sherer, and Rogers (1982)

it was found that while the two constructs were not independent, outcome expectancy had a positive effect on intention to perform the behavior while efficacy did not As a result of the above Operationalizations, we can see that Self-efficacy expectancy is comprised of a personal expectancy dimension (evaluation of self) and an environmental expectancy dimension (evaluation of situation)

Outcome expectancy has also been operationalized differently in various self-efficacy studies Bandura (1977) defined outcome expectancy as a person's estimate that a given behavior will lead to a certain outcome, which captures the expectation of receiving a reward for Successful performance (consequence expectancy) His example is a person attempting to jump six feet has some probability estimate of the Capability to be successful (personal expectancy) There then follows an evaluation of whether success will lead to applause, trophies, or other rewards However, an evaluation of a task’s requirements must consider situational (environmental) contingencies as well Kirsch (1985) provides the description of how a runner must not only assess his own abilities, but also the abilities of the other runners Palenzuela (1987) operationalized Outcome expectancy as an anticipation of consequences from exhibiting a behavior and also obtaining a desired outcome We can thus see that depending

on its operationalization, outcome expectancy is comprised of personal, environmental and/or consequence expectancies

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Theories of Social Behavior

Additional support for the importance personal, environmental, and consequence expectancy, as well as consequence valuation, is provided by the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985; 1991), and the earlier Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) upon which it is based As

- seen in Figure 2.3, TPB suggests that there are three independent determinants

BEHAVIORAL

BEHAVIORAL CONTROL

Figure 2.3 - The Theory of Planned Behavior

Attitude Toward The Behavior refers to the degree to which a person has

a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior Subjective Norm refers to the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of

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performing the behavior These three constructs are in turn determined by their respective behavioral, normative and contro! beliefs relative to the subject behavior

According to Ajzen (1991), attitude is proportional to the sum of the multiplicative products of beliefs about the consequences of a behavior (i.e., consequence expectancy), termed behavioral beliefs, and the evaluation of the desirability of those consequences (i.e., consequence valuation), termed belief evaluation Behavioral beliefs link a behavior to an outcome or other attribute, such as cost incurred by performing the behavior The attributes are “, already valued so we automatically and simultaneously acquire an attitude toward the behavior.” (pg 191) Importantly, Ajzen (1991) also states that “ we learn to favor behaviors we believe have largely desirable consequences and we form unfavorable attitudes towards behaviors we associate with mostly undesirable consequences” (pg 191) Hence, we can see that attitude incorporates both a consequence expectancy dimension (behavioral beliefs) and a consequence valuation dimension (belief evaluation) with respect to a given behavior

Subjective Norms are proportional to the sum of the multiplicative products

of the individual's belief with respect to each referent’s approval or disapproval of

a given behavior, termed normative beliefs, and the individual's motivation to comply with the respective referent’s wishes Motivation to comply reflects a rating of how much an individual cares whether the referent approves or disapproves of a behavior In this instance, we can see that subjective norms incorporates both a consequence expectancy dimension (the referents approval

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or disapproval) and a consequence valuation dimension (motivation to comply)

In addition, it should be noted that referents may be categorized as being within

or without the WPR context By this | mean that relatives, friends unrelated to the workplace, and so forth, may influence the individual without impacting the workplace milieu However, superiors, peers and subordinates may influence the individual as well as the organizational context within which WPR must take place This latter group may evidence their approval or disapproval of an individual's behavior by engaging in behaviors themselves that aid or impede the individual’s WPR activities Therefore, an individual’s environmental expectancy may also be impacted by his normative beliefs

PBC is proportional to the sum of the multiplicative products of beliefs the individual has with regard to the presence or absence of the resources and opportunities requisite for the performance of a behavior, termed control beliefs, and the perceived power of that control factor to facilitate or inhibit performance

of the behavior Ajzen describes PBC as consisting of both internal and Situational dimensions In differentiating PBC from Rotter’s (1966) perceived locus of control, Ajzen states that PBC refers to an individual's perception of the ease or difficulty of performing a particular behavior Whereas locus of control is seen as a generalized expectancy that remains stable across situations, PBC can, and often does, vary across situations This two dimensional view of PBC is consistent with the personal expectancy and environmental expectancy dimensions argued above with respect to self-efficacy Thus an individual may believe that a particular outcome is determined by his own behavior (personal

expectancy), but may also believe that an outcome is constrained by situational variables (environmental expectancy)

Table 2.2 shows a comparison of the three posited expectancy constructs,

as well as consequence valuation, drawn from the work motivation, social cognition, and attitude/behavioral intent (social behavior) theories Personal efficacy, consequence expectancy and consequence valuation are clearly Supported by each of the three supporting theories The attitude/behavioral intent literature clearly supports a distinct environmental expectancy separate from personal expectancy As regards the work motivation and social cognitive theories, a separate environmental expectancy is necessary so as not to confound the effects of one’s perception of self and one’s perception of the environment with regard to the likelihood for successful achievement of a goal

In the conceptual model that follows, the effects of these constructs upon IT infusion will be shown

Table 2.2 - A Comparison of Expectancy Within Work Motivation, Social Cognitive, and Social Behavior Theories

external dimension | comply

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Conceptual Model

As stated earlier, WPR is posited as a necessary condition for !T infusion

to occur An individual must Possess sufficient prior related knowledge of both the work system and the IT for such a reconceptualization to take place For IT infusion to result, however, an individual must not only reconceptualize his work processes, but then he must utilize the IT to its fullest extent in the performance

of those reconceptualized work processes It is important to note that the WPR must be enacted for IT infusion to result

Figure 2.4 - Conceptual Model of the impact of Motivation on IT Infusion

As depicted in Figure 2.4, an individual possesses a sufficient knowledge

of the inherent tasks, processes and outcomes, as well as knowledge of the IT,

such that he perceives a WPR opportunity The type of WPR determines the resulting level of IT infusion (extended, integrative or emergent), moderated by the individual's motivational state

As shown in Figure 2.5, which depicts a more detailed conceptual model,

an individual's motivational state is formed by the interaction of his consequence valuation and consequence expectancy, as well as by his personal, environmental, and enactment cost expectancies

EXPECTANCY

MOTIVATIONAL F—>\| STATE

ENACTMENT COST

EXPECTANCY

Figure 2.5 - Conceptual Model of the impact of Motivation on IT Infusion

The stronger the consequence expectation, the more highly valued the consequences, the greater the expectation of success given personal and environmental contingencies, and the tower the effort or other cost associated with enactment, the more positive will be the individual's motivational state, and the stronger will be the intention to undertake IT infusion producing behaviors Each of these constructs is discussed below

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Prior Related Knowledge

As stated earlier, WPR requires a sufficient level of task/outcome related knowledge and a sufficient level of IT related knowledge such that there is an ability to recognize and act upon a WPR opportunity If such an absorptive Capacity (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990) is initially absent, then the individual must undertake task knowledge, process knowledge, outcome knowledge, and/or IT knowledge building behaviors if WPR is to result

WPR Understanding

Past research has implicitly assumed that WPR is an antecedent to IT infusion As a result, the focus of past studies has been on defining and measuring various levels of IT infusion, rather than on understanding WPR and its affect upon IT infusion Hence, the mechanisms through which WPR occurs and its relationship to the various levels of IT infusion have not been explained

As stated earlier, this dissertation Suggests that three independent but related levels of WPR can occur within organizations Each of these three levels interplay tasks, outcomes, and processes as depicted in Figure 2.6 The objective or end result of a work domain is an outcome This outcome is achieved through the completion of tasks, which can be seen as interim Outcomes In other words, various inputs are processed to effect their respective tasks These tasks then serve as inputs that are processed to achieve the outcome Each of these three posited levels is discussed more fully below

In the first WPR dimension, process reconceptualization, the outcome and tasks remain largely the same, but the Processes for accomplishing them change

to more fully utilize the Capabilities of an IT In essence, what you want to accomplish does not change, but how you go about it changes to reflect the increased use of IT Process modification WPR leads to the extended use dimension of IT infusion Suggested by Saga and Zmud (1998) Extended use reflects the number and degree of an IT’s functions that are applied within a

reconceptualization of the IT functionalities utilized in relation to the tasks to be performed Organizations can facilitate process reconceptualization in a number

of ways, such as by Providing training about the IT

Figure 2.6 - Model of a Work Domain

In the second WPR level, task reconceptualization, the outcome is the Same, but the underlying tasks are reconceptualized and _ their underlying processes change to reflect the newly incorporated capabilities of IT Task reconceptualization requires that the user possess threshold levels of both task knowledge and !T knowledge The threshold levels of each may be achieved through a variety of activities including training and social networking Task reconceptualization can readily be seen to represent a higher level of use, and hence, its enactment constitutes IT infusion However, existing dimensions of IT infusion do not accommodate this dimension of WPR

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In the third WPR level, outcome reconceptualization, the outcome is redefined; necessitating that tasks and outcome processes must be developed to accomplish the newly redefined outcome Similar to task reconceptualization in that threshold levels of outcome and IT knowledge are prerequisites, enactment

of this dimension leads to the emergent use dimension of IT infusion However, while emergent use is seen as resulting from extended use and integrative use,

process reconceptualization and/or task reconceptualization

Each level of WPR can be influenced by various factors under the contro!

of management, such as training Furthermore, each level of WPR is seen as leading to different IT infusion outcomes (extended, integrated, or emergent) Consequence Expectancy

Consequence expectancy is the individual's assessment of the probability that some consequence will result from the quality/quantity of a particular performance outcome Consequence type and consequence origin are seen as impacting an individual's consequence expectation

Consequence Type — Three types of consequences are seen - positive performance consequences, negative non-performance consequences, and positive non-performance consequences Consequences resuit from either performing or not performing a behavior As in reinforcement theory, | suggest there are two types of consequences that act as an inducement to undertake the

consequences, such as a promotion, are desired by the individual Negative

consequences, herein termed negative non-performance consequences, lead an individual to undertake the behaviors so as to avoid undesirable consequences that may result from non-performance, i.e., undertaking a behavior to avoid employment termination

An individual may, however, perceive that performance could lead, not to Some net perceived benefit, but rather, to a net perceived cost For example, an individual may believe that a successful outcome will lead to the loss of his job

In such a case, the individual will likely be resistant to performing the behavior, and such consequences are herein termed negative performance consequences Such resistance inducing consequences are seen as impacting motivation, but in the opposite direction

Consequence Origin - Consequences are seen as emanating from within

or without the individual While often termed intrinsic and extrinsic, respectively, the dissertation prefers the terms internally conferred and externally conferred for the following reason Intrinsic motivation usually refers to performing an activity for itself, and the pleasure and Satisfaction derived from participation (Vallerand, 1997; Deci and Ryan, 1985) Thus, it focuses on the process rather than the outcome of a behavior, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity as a means to an end As this dissertation is focusing on outcomes, the terms internally and externally conferred are preferred so as to avoid confusion However, both internally and externally conferred consequences are seen as extrinsically motivating in as much as they result from engaging in an activity to achieve a specific goal

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Internally conferred consequences emanate from within the individual and encompass those consequences, such as acquiring a new skill, that provide pleasure or satisfaction relative to a need or other Motivation of the individual and are not dependent upon others for their conferment Externally conferred consequences, conversely, emanate from without the individual and rely upon others for their conferment They include such consequences as promotions, raises, and the approval of friends or other referents, and their conferment is Seen as outside the direct contro! of the individual Internally conferred consequences are seen as being Strongly linked to performance since the individual confers them upon himself The performance to externally conferred consequences link is seen as being subject to greater volatility since it is under the contro! of others

Consequence immediacy - By consequence immediacy | mean the time between the achievement of the outcome and the attainment of the

consequence As the time between the achievement of the outcome and the receipt of the consequence increases, the valuation of the consequence decreases

Consequence Coupling - By consequence coupling | am referring to the directness of the coupling between the outcome and the consequence The relationship between the outcome and the consequence is seen as being either direct or contingent in nature in a direct Outcome - consequence relationship, the achievement of the IT infusion outcome will result in the attainment of the valued consequence (necessary and Sufficient) In a contingent outcome - consequence relationship, other variables may intervene between the outcome and the attainment of the benefit (necessary, but not sufficient) Direct consequences are seen as more Strongly linked to performance than are contingent consequences

As indicated above, the conceptual model rests on the premise that an individual must perceive that WPR and the subsequent infusion of IT will produce some benefit(s) valued by the individual Hence, an individual’s motivational State is directly influenced by his perception of the consequences that will result from IT infusion and his valuation of those consequences The sum of the valued consequences associated with a behavior (or set of behaviors) must attain some individually determined threshold (consequence expectancy — consequence valuation threshold) so as to induce action As will be discussed below, failure to attain this consequence expectancy — consequence valuation threshold will lead

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to an individual being in an Amotivated motivational state, which may be viewed

as similar to apathetic

Personal Expectancy

Personal Expectancy is an individual's assessment of his capabilities to exhibit the necessary behaviors to produce a type of performance outcome, holding the environment constant Personal Expectancy is seen as directly impacting Motivational State When an individual believes he lacks the requisite skills and abilities to enact the behavior he will be less motivated to act

Environmental Expectancy

Environmental Expectancy is an individual's estimate of the probability that environmental contingencies are conducive to the accomplishment of a performance outcome Environmental Expectancy is seen as directly impacting Motivational State When an individual believes that the environment is not conducive to behavior enactment he will be less motivated to act

Enactment Cost Expectancy

Enactment Cost Expectancy is an individual's assessment of the amount

of cognitive effort, time, and/or other resources that will be necessary to enact the WPR Enactment Cost Expectancy is seen as directly impacting Motivational State An individual evaluates whether the expenditure of effort, time, and/or other resources required to enact the WPR are justified given the expected benefits of WPR enactment It is seen as a subjective “return on investment’ evaluation Enactment Cost Expectancy is seen as salient to the extent that an

individual believes that the associated effort and/or costs are not conducive to behavior enactment

Motivational States

| suggest there are four motivational states: congruent, amotivated,

expectancies are all sufficiently positive, an individual will be in a Congruent State An Amotivated state results when the Consequence Valuation does not attain the requisite subjective threshold in other words, the individual is ambivalent or apathetic toward the consequences that may result A Resistant State occurs when an individual perceives that a successful outcome will result in

an untoward consequence A Resistant state is similar toa Congruent state in that all of the expectancies are at a sufficiently high level The difference is that

in a Resistant state an individual perceives a net undesirable consequence rather than a perceived benefit

A Dissonant state occurs when the Consequence Expectation - Consequence Valuation is sufficiently positive, but the Personal, Environmental and/or Enactment Cost Expectancies is/are at or near zero In other words, the individual sufficiently values the consequences but believes that they will not be attained either because he lacks the requisite skills and abilities, because the environment is not conducive to goal accomplishment, and/or the enactment costs are deemed too high Self Dissonance indicates that the individual's Consequence Expectation - Consequence Valuation is sufficiently positive, but

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