Most people within project-driven and non–project-driven organizations have differing views of project management. Table 5–1 compares the project and functional viewpoints of project management. These differing views can create severe barriers to successful project management operations.
The understanding of barriers to project team building can help in developing an en- vironment conducive to effective teamwork. The following barriers to team building were identified and analyzed in a field study by Thamhain and Wilemon.7They are typical for many project environments.
Differing outlooks, priorities, and interests.A major barrier exists when team mem- bers have professional objectives and interests that are different from the project objec- tives. These problems are compounded when the team relies on support organizations that have different interests and priorities.
Role conflicts.Team development efforts are thwarted when role conflicts exist among the team members, such as ambiguity over who does what within the project team and in external support groups.
Project objectives/outcomes not clear.Unclear project objectives frequently lead to conflict, ambiguities, and power struggles. It becomes difficult, if not impossible, to define roles and responsibilities clearly.
Dynamic project environments.Many projects operate in a continual state of change.
For example, senior management may keep changing the project scope, objectives, and re- source base. In other situations, regulatory changes or client demands can drastically af- fect the internal operations of a project team.
Competition over team leadership.Project leaders frequently indicated that this bar- rier most likely occurs in the early phases of a project or if the project runs into severe problems. Obviously, such cases of leadership challenge can result in barriers to team building. Frequently, these challenges are covert challenges to the project leader’s ability.
Lack of team definition and structure.Many senior managers complain that teamwork is severely impaired because it lacks clearly defined task responsibilities and reporting
7. For detailed discussion see H. J. Thamhain and D. L. Wilemon, “Team Building in Project Management,”
Proceedings of the Annual Symposium of the Project Management Institute,October 1979.
Barriers to Project Team Development 209
TABLE 5–1. COMPARISON OF THE FUNCTIONAL AND THE PROJECT VIEWPOINTS
Phenomena Project Viewpoint Functional Viewpoint
Line–staff organizational Vestiges of the hierarchical model Line functions have direct dichotomy remain: the line functions are placed responsibility for
in a support position. A web of accomplishing the objectives;
authority and responsibility exists. line commands, and staff advises.
Scalar principle Elements of the vertical chain exist, The chain of authority but prime emphasis is placed on relationships is from superior horizontal and diagonal work flow. to subordinate throughout the Important business is conducted as organization. Central, crucial, the legitimacy of the task requires. and important business is
conducted up and down the vertical hierarchy.
Superior–subordinate Peer-to-peer, manager-to-technical This is the most important relationship expert, associate-to-associate, etc., relationship; if kept healthy,
relationships are used to conduct success will follow. All much of the salient business. important business is
conducted through a pyramiding structure of superiors and subordinates Organizational objectives Management of a project becomes Organizational objectives are a joint venture of many relatively sought by the parent unit (an independent organizations. Thus, assembly of suborganizations) the objective becomes multilateral. working within its
environment. The objective is unilateral.
Unity of direction The project manager manages across The general manager acts as the functional and organizational one head for a group of lines to accomplish a common activities having the same interorganizational objective. plan.
Parity of authority and Considerable opportunity exists for Consistent with functional responsibility the project manager’s responsibility management; the integrity of
to exceed his authority. Support the superior–subordinate people are often responsible to other relationship is maintained managers (functional) for pay, through functional authority performance reports, promotions, etc. and advisory staff services.
Time duration The project (and hence the organization) Tends to perpetuate itself to is finite in duration. provide continuing facilitative
support.
Source:David I. Cleland, “Project Management,” in David I. Cleland and William R. King, eds.,Systems Organizations, Analysis, Management: A Book of Readings(New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1969), pp. 281–290. © 1969 by McGraw-Hill Inc.
Reprinted with permission of the publisher.
structures. We find this situation is most prevalent in dynamic, organizationally unstruc- tured work environments such as computer systems and R&D projects. A common pat- tern is that a support department is charged with a task but no one leader is clearly del- egated the responsibility. As a consequence, some personnel are working on the project but are not entirely clear on the extent of their responsibilities. In other cases, problems result when a project is supported by several departments without interdisciplinary coordination.
Team personnel selection.This barrier develops when personnel feel unfairly treated or threatened during the staffing of a project. In some cases, project personnel are assigned to a team by functional managers, and the project manager has little or no input into the selection process. This can impede team development efforts, especially when the project leader is given available personnel versus the best, hand-picked team members. The as- signment of “available personnel” can result in several problems (e.g., low motivation lev- els, discontent, and uncommitted team members). We’ve found, as a rule, that the more power the project leader has over the selection of his team members, and the more nego- tiated agreement there is over the assigned task, the more likely it is that team-building ef- forts will be fruitful.
Credibility of project leader.Team-building efforts are hampered when the project leader suffers from poor credibility within the team or from other managers. In such cases, team members are often reluctant to make a commitment to the project or the leader.
Credibility problems may come from poor managerial skills, poor technical judgments, or lack of experience relevant to the project.
Lack of team member commitment.Lack of commitment can have several sources. For example, the team members having professional interests elsewhere, the feeling of inse- curity that is associated with projects, the unclear nature of the rewards that may be forth- coming upon successful completion, and intense interpersonal conflicts within the team can all lead to lack of commitment.
Lack of team member commitment may result from suspicious attitudes existing be- tween the project leader and a functional support manager, or between two team members from two warring functional departments. Finally, low commitment levels are likely to oc- cur when a “star” on a team “demands” too much effort from other team members or too much attention from the team leader. One team leader put it this way: “A lot of teams have their prima donnas and you learn to live and function with them. They can be critical to overall success. But some stars can be so demanding on everyone that they’ll kill the team’s motivation.”
Communication problems.Not surprisingly, poor communication is a major enemy to effective team development. Poor communication exists on four major levels: problems of communication among team members, between the project leader and the team members, between the project team and top management, and between the project leaders and the client. Often the problem is caused by team members simply not keeping others informed on key project developments. Yet the “whys” of poor communication patterns are far more difficult to determine. The problem can result from low motivation levels, poor morale, or carelessness. It was also discovered that poor communication patterns between the team and support groups result in severe team-building problems, as does poor communication
with the client. Poor communication practices often lead to unclear objectives and poor project control, coordination, and work flow.
Lack of senior management support.Project leaders often indicate that senior man- agement support and commitment is unclear and subject to waxing and waning over the project life cycle. This behavior can result in an uneasy feeling among team members and lead to low levels of enthusiasm and project commitment. Two other common problems are that senior management often does not help set the right environment for the project team at the outset, nor do they give the team timely feedback on their performance and ac- tivities during the life of the project.
Project managers who are successfully performing their role not only recognize these barriers but also know when in the project life cycle they are most likely to occur.
Moreover, these managers take preventive actions and usually foster a work environment that is conducive to effective teamwork. The effective team builder is usually a social ar- chitect who understands the interaction of organizational and behavior variables and can foster a climate of active participation and minimal conflict. This requires carefully devel- oped skills in leadership, administration, organization, and technical expertise on the project. However, besides the delicately balanced management skills, the project man- ager’s sensitivity to the basic issues underlying each barrier can help to increase success in developing an effective project team. Specific suggestions for team building are advanced in Table 5–2.
Barriers to Project Team Development 211
TABLE 5–2. BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE TEAM BUILDING AND SUGGESTED HANDLING APPROACHES
Suggestions for Effectively Managing Barriers Barrier (How to Minimize or Eliminate Barriers)
Differing outlooks, priorities, Make effort early in the project life cycle to discover these conflicting interests, and judgments of differences. Fully explain the scope of the project and the rewards that team members may be forthcoming on successful project completion. Sell “team” concept
and explain responsibilities. Try to blend individual interests with the overall project objectives.
Role conflicts As early in a project as feasible, ask team members where they see themselves fitting into the project. Determine how the overall project can best be divided into subsystems and subtasks (e.g., the work breakdown structure). Assign/negotiate roles. Conduct regular status review meetings to keep team informed on progress and watch for unanticipated role conflicts over the project’s life.
Project objectives/outcomes Assure that all parties understand the overall and interdisciplinary project not clear objectives. Clear and frequent communication with senior management
and the client becomes critically important. Status review meetings can be used for feedback. Finally, a proper team name can help to reinforce the project objectives.
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TABLE 5–2. BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE TEAM BUILDING AND SUGGESTED HANDLING APPROACHES (Continued)
Suggestions for Effectively Managing Barriers Barrier (How to Minimize or Eliminate Barriers)
Dynamic project The major challenge is to stabilize external influences. First, key project environments personnel must work out an agreement on the principal project direction
and “sell” this direction to the total team. Also educate senior management and the customer on the detrimental consequences of unwarranted change.
It is critically important to forecast the “environment” within which the project will be developed. Develop contingency plans.
Competition over team Senior management must help establish the project manager’s leadership leadership role. On the other hand, the project manager needs to fulfill the
leadership expectations of team members. Clear role and responsibility definition often minimizes competition over leadership.
Lack of team definition and Project leaders need to sell the team concept to senior management as well as structure to their team members. Regular meetings with the team will reinforce the
team notion as will clearly defined tasks, roles, and responsibilities. Also, visibility in memos and other forms of written media as well as senior management and client participation can unify the team.
Project personnel selection Attempt to negotiate the project assignments with potential team members.
Clearly discuss with potential team members the importance of the project, their role in it, what rewards might result on completion, and the general
“rules of the road” of project management. Finally, if team members remain uninterested in the project, then replacement should be considered.
Credibility of project leader Credibility of the project leader among team members is crucial. It grows with the image of a sound decision-maker in both general management and relevant technical expertise. Credibility can be enhanced by the project leader’s relationship to other key managers who support the team’s efforts.
Lack of team member Try to determine lack of team member commitment early in the life of the commitment project and attempt to change possible negative views toward the project.
Often, insecurity is a major reason for the lack of commitment; try to determine why insecurity exists, then work on reducing the team members’ fears. Conflicts with other team members may be another reason for lack of commitment. It is important for the project leader to intervene and mediate the conflict quickly. Finally, if a team member’s professional interests lie elsewhere, the project leader should examine ways to satisfy part of the team member’s interests or consider replacement.
Communication problems The project leader should devote considerable time communicating with individual team members about their needs and concerns. In addition, the leader should provide a vehicle for timely sessions to encourage communications among the individual team contributors. Tools for enhancing communications are status meetings, reviews, schedules, reporting system, and colocation. Similarly, the project leader should establish regular and thorough communications with the client and senior management. Emphasis is placed on written and oral communications with key issues and agreements in writing.
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