Although project managers have the authority and responsibility to establish pro- ject policies and procedures, they must fall within the general guidelines estab- lished by top management. Table 5–5 identifies sample top-management guide- lines. Guidelines can also be established for planning, scheduling, controlling, and communications.
16. Source unknown.
TABLE 5–5.PROJECT GUIDELINES Program ManagerFunctional ManagerRelationship The program manager is responsible for overallThe functional organization managers areThe program manager determines what will program direction,control,and coordination;responsible for supporting the programbe done:he obtains,through the assigned and is the principal contact with the programmanager in the performance of theprogram team members,the assistance management of the customer.contract(s) and in accordance with theand concurrence of the functional To achieve the program objectives,the programterms of the contract(s) and aresupport organizations in determining the manager utilizes the services of the functionalaccountable to their cognizantdefinitive requirements and objectives of organizations in accordance with the prescribedmanagers for the total performance.the program. division policies and procedures affecting theThe functional organizations determine functional organizations.howthe work will be done. The program manager establishes program and technical The functional support organizationsThe program manager operates within policy as defined by management policy.perform all work within theirprescribed division policies and The program manager is responsible for thefunctional areas for all programsprocedures except where requirements of progress being made as well as the effectivenesswithin the cost,schedule,quality,anda particular program necessitate of the total program.specifications established by contractdeviations or modifications as approved Integrates research,development,production,for the program so as to assist theby the general manager. The functional procurement,quality assurance,productprogram manager in achieving thesupport organizations provide strong, support,test,and financial and contractualprogram objectives.aggressive support to the program aspects.The functional support organizationmanagers. Approves detailed performance specifications,management seeks out or initiatesThe program manager relies on the pertinent physical characteristics,andinnovations,methods,improvements,orfunctional support program team functional design criteria to meet theother means that will enable thatmembers for carrying out specific program’s development or operationalfunction to better scheduleprogram assignments. requirements.commitments,reduce cost,improveProgram managers and the functional Ensures preparation of,and approves,overallquality,or otherwise render exemplarysupport program team members are plan,budgets,and work statements essentialperformance as approved by thejointly responsible for ensuring that to the integration of system elements.program manager.unresolved conflicts between Directs the preparation and maintenance of arequirements levied on functional time,cost,and performance schedule toorganizations by different program ensure the orderly progress of the program.managers are brought to the attention of management. (continues)
241
TABLE 5–5.PROJECT GUIDELINES (Continued) Program ManagerFunctional ManagerRelationship Coordinates and approves subcontract workProgram managers do not make decisions statement,schedules,contract type,andthat are the responsibility of the price for major “buy”items.functional support organizations as Coordinates and approves vendor evaluationdefined in division policies and and source selections in conjunction withprocedures and/or as assigned by the procurement representative to the programgeneral manager. team.Functional organization managers do not Program decision authority rests with therequest decisions of a program manager program manager for all matters relating to histhat are not within the program assigned program,consistent with division manager’s delineated authority and policy and the responsibilities assigned by the responsibility and that do not af general manager.requirements of the program. Functional organizations do not mak program decisions that are the responsibility of the program manager Joint participation in problem solution is essential to providing satisfactory decisions that fulfill overall program and company objectives,and is accomplished by the program manager and the assigned program team members. In arriving at program decisions, program manager obtains the assistance and concurrence of cognizant functional support managers,through the cognizant program team member,since the held accountable for their support of each program and for overall di functional performance.
242
PROBLEMS
5–1 A project manager finds that he does not have direct reward power over salaries, bonuses, work assignments, or project funding for members of the project team with whom he interfaces.
Does this mean that he is totally deficient in reward power? Explain your answer.
5–2 For each of the remarks made below, what types of interpersonal influences could exist?
a. “I’ve had good working relations with department X. They like me and I like them.
I can usually push through anything ahead of schedule.”
b. A research scientist was temporarily promoted to project management for an ad- vanced state-of-the-art effort. He was overheard making the following remark to a team member: “I know it’s contrary to department policy, but the test must be con- ducted according to these criteria or else the results will be meaningless.”
5–3 Do you agree or disagree that scientists and engineers are likely to be more creative if they feel that they have sufficient freedom in their work? Can this condition backfire?
5–4 Should the amount of risk and uncertainty in the project have a direct bearing on how much authority is granted to a project manager?
5–5 Some projects are directed by project managers who have only monitoring authority.
These individuals are referred to as influence project managers. What kind of projects would be under their control? What organizational structure might be best for this?
5–6 As a project nears termination, the project manager may find that the functional people are more interested in finding a new role for themselves than in giving their best to the current situation. How does this relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and what should the project manager do?
5–7 Richard M. Hodgetts (“Leadership Techniques in the Project Organization,”Academy of Management Journal,June 1968, pp. 211–219) conducted a survey on aerospace, chemical, construction, and state government workers as to whether they would rate the following lead- ership techniques as very important, important, or not important:
● Negotiation
● Personality and/or persuasive ability
● Competence
● Reciprocal favors
How do you think each industry answered the questionnaires?
5–8 Robert D. Doering (“An Approach Toward Improving the Creative Output of Scientific Task Teams,” IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, February 1973, pp. 29–31,
© 1973 IEEE) commented that:
The team leader’s role is crucial. He is directly involved and must know the individual team mem- bers well, not only in terms of their technical capabilities but also in terms of how they function when addressing a problem as part of a group. The technical competence of a potential team mem- ber can usually be determined from information about previous assignments, but it is not so easy to predict and control the individual’s interaction within and with a new group, since it is related to the psychological and social behavior of each of the other members of the group as a whole.
What the leader needs is a tool to measure and characterize the individual members so that he can predict their interactions and structure his task team accordingly.
Is such a test possible for people working in a project environment? Are there any project or- ganizational forms that would be conducive for such testing?
Problems 243
5–9 Project managers consider authority and funding as being very important in gaining sup- port. Functional personnel, however, prefer friendship and work assignments. How can these two outlooks be related to the theories of Maslow and McGregor?
5–10 Lloyd A. Rogers (“Guidelines for Project Management Teams,”Industrial Engineering, December 1974, p. 12. Published and copyright 1974 by the Institute of Industrial Engineers, 25 Technology Park, Norcross, GA 30092, 770-449-0461) has commented that:
The technical planners, whether they are engineers or systems analysts, must be experts at de- signing the system, but seldom do they recognize the need to “put on another hat” when system design specifications are completed and design the project control or implementation plan. If this it not done, setting a project completion target date or a set of management checkpoint mile- stones is done by guesswork at best. Management will set the checkpoint milestones, and the technical planners will hope they can meet the schedule.
How can this planning problem be effectively resolved on a continuing basis?
5–11 What kind of working relationships would result if the project manager had more reward power than the functional managers?
5–12 For each of the following remarks, state the possible situation and accompanying as- sumptions that you would make.
a. “A good project manager should manage by focusing on keeping people happy.”
b. “A good project manager must be willing to manage tension.”
c. “The responsibility for the success or failure rests with upper-level management. This is their baby.”
d. Remarks by functional employee: “What if I fail on this project? What can he (the project manager) do to me?”
5–13 Can each of the following situations lead to failure?
a. Lack of expert power b. Lack of referent power
c. Lack of reward and punishment power d. Not having sufficient authority
5–14 One of your people comes into your office and states that he has a technical problem and would like your assistance by making a phone call.
a. Is this managing or doing?
b. Does your answer depend on who must be called? (That is, is it possible that author- ity relationships may have to be considered?)
5–15 On the LRC, can we structure the responsibility column to primary and secondary responsibilities?
5–16 Discuss the meaning of each of the two poems listed below:
We shall have to evolve Problem solvers galore Since each problem they solve Creates ten problems more.
Author unknown
Jack and Jill went up the hill To fetch a pail of water
Jack fell down and broke his crown And Jill came tumbling after.
Jack could have avoided this awful lump By seeking alternative choices
Like installing some pipe and a great big pump And handing Jill the invoices.17
5–17 What is the correct way for a project manager to invite line managers to attend team meetings?
5–18 Can a project manager sit and wait for things to happen, or should he cause things to happen?
5–19 The company has just hired a fifty-four-year-old senior engineer who holds two masters degrees in engineering disciplines. The engineer is quite competent and has worked well as a loner for the past twenty years. This same engineer has just been assigned to the R&D phase of your project. You, as project manager or project engineer, must make sure that this engineer works as a team member with other functional employees, not as a loner. How do you propose to accomplish this? If the individual persists in wanting to be a loner, should you fire him?
5–20 Suppose the linear responsibility chart is constructed with the actual names of the peo- ple involved, rather than just their titles. Should this chart be given to the customer?
5–21 How should a functional manager handle a situation where the project manager:
a. Continually cries wolf concerning some aspect of the project when, in fact, the prob- lem either does not exist or is not as severe as the project manager makes it out to be?
b. Refuses to give up certain resources that are no longer needed on the project?
5–22 How do you handle a project manager or project engineer who continually tries to “bite off more than he can chew?” If he were effective at doing this, at least temporarily, would your answer change?
5–23 A functional manager says that he has fifteen people assigned to work on your project next week (according to the project plan and schedule). Unfortunately, you have just learned that the prototype is not available and that these fifteen people will have nothing to do. Now what? Who is at fault?
5–24 Manpower requirements indicate that a specific functional pool will increase sharply from eight to seventeen people over the next two weeks and then drop back to eight people.
Should you question this?
5–25 Below are several sources from which legal authority can be derived. State whether each source provides the project manager with sufficient authority from which he can effectively manage the project.
a. The project or organizational charter
b. The project manager’s position in the organization
Problems 245
17. Stacer Holcomb, OSD (SA), as quoted in The C/E Newsletter,publication of the cost effectiveness section of the Operations Research Society of America, Vol. 2, No. 1, January 1967.
c. The job description and specifications for project managers d. Policy documents
e. The project manager’s “executive” rank f. Dollar value of the contract
g. Control of funds
5–26 Is this managing or doing?18
MANAGING DOING
_________ ________ 1. Making a call with one of your people to assist him in solving a technical problem.
_________ ________ 2. Signing a check to approve a routine expenditure.
_________ ________ 3. Conducting the initial screening interview of a job applicant.
_________ ________ 4. Giving one of your experienced people your solution to a new problem without first asking for his recommendation.
_________ ________ 5. Giving your solution to a recurring problem that one of your new people has just asked you about.
_________ ________ 6. Conducting a meeting to explain to your people a new procedure.
_________ ________ 7. Phoning a department to request help in solving a problem that one of your people is trying to solve.
_________ ________ 8. Filling out a form to give one of your people a pay increase.
_________ ________ 9. Explaining to one of your people why he is receiving a merit pay increase.
_________ ________ 10. Deciding whether to add a position.
_________ ________ 11. Asking one of your people what he thinks about an idea you have that will affect your people.
________ ________ 12. Transferring a desirable assignment from employee A to employee B because employee A did not devote the necessary effort.
________ ________ 13. Reviewing regular written reports to determine your people’s progress toward their objectives.
________ ________ 14. Giving a regular progress report by phone to your supervisor.
________ ________ 15. Giving a tour to an important visitor from outside of your organization.
________ ________ 16. Drafting an improved layout of facilities.
________ ________ 17. Discussing with your key people the extent
to which they should use staff services during the next year.
________ ________ 18. Deciding what your expense-budget request will be for your area of responsibility.
18. From Raymond O. Leon,Manage More by Doing Less(New York: McGraw-Hill), p. 4. Copyright © 1971 by McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Company.
________ ________ 19. Attending a professional or industrial meeting to learn detailed technical developments.
________ ________ 20. Giving a talk on your work activities to a local community group.
5–27 Below are three broad statements describing the functions of management. For each statement, are we referring to upper-level management, project management, or functional management?
a. Acquire the best available assets and try to improve them.
b. Provide a good working environment for all personnel.
c. Make sure that all resources are applied effectively and efficiently such that all con- straints are met, if possible.
5–28 Decide whether you agree or disagree that, in the management of people, the project manager:
● Must convert mistakes into learning experiences.
● Acts as the lubricant that eases the friction (i.e., conflicts) between the functioning parts.
5–29 Functional employees are supposed to be the experts. A functional employee makes a statement that the project manager does not believe is completely true or accurate. Should the project manager support the team member? If so, for how long? Does your answer depend on to whom the remarks are being addressed, such as upper-level management or the customer?
At what point should a project manager stop supporting his team members?
5–30 Below are four statements: two statements describe a function, and two others describe a purpose. Which statements refer to project management and which refer to functional management?
● Function
● Reduce or eliminate uncertainty
● Minimize and assess risk
● Purpose
● Create the environment (using transformations)
● Perform decision-making in the transformed environment
5–31 Manager A is a department manager with thirty years of experience in the company. For the last several years, he has worn two hats and acted as both project manager and functional manager on a variety of projects. He is an expert in his field. The company has decided to in- corporate formal project management and has established a project management department.
Manager B, a thirty-year-old employee with three years of experience with the company, has been assigned as project manager. In order to staff his project, manager B has requested from manager A that manager C (a personal friend of manager B) be assigned to the project as the functional representative. Manager C is twenty-six years old and has been with the company for two years. Manager A agrees to the request and informs manager C of his new assignment, closing with the remarks, “This project is yours all the way. I don’t want to have anything to do with it. I’ll be too busy with paperwork as the result of our new organizational structure. Just send me a memo once in a while telling me what’s happening.”
During the project kickoff meeting it became obvious to both manager B and manager C that the only person with the necessary expertise was manager A. Without the support of man- ager A, the time duration for project completion could be expected to double.
Problems 247
This situation is ideal for role playing. Put yourself in the place of managers A, B, and C and discuss the reasons for your actions. How can this problem be overcome? How do you get manager A to support the project? Who should inform upper-level management of this situa- tion? When should upper-level management be informed? Would any of your answers change if manager B and manager C were not close friends?
5–32 Is it possible for a product manager to have the same degree of tunnel vision that a project manager has? If so, under what circumstances?
5–33 Your company has a policy that employees can participate in an educational tuition re- imbursement program, provided that the degree obtained will benefit the company and that the employee’s immediate superior gives his permission. As a project manager, you authorize George, your assistant project manager who reports directly to you, to take courses leading to an MBA degree.
Midway through your project, you find that overtime is required on Monday and Wednesday evenings, the same two evenings that George has classes. George cannot change the evenings that his classes are offered. You try without success to reschedule the overtime to early mornings or other evenings. According to company policy, the project office must supervise all overtime. Since the project office consists of only you and George, you must perform the over- time if George does not. How should you handle this situation? Would your answer change if you thought that George might leave the company after receiving his degree?
5–34 Establishing good interface relationships between the project manager and functional manager can take a great deal of time, especially during the conversion from a traditional to a project organizational form. Below are five statements that represent the different stages in the development of a good interface relationship. Place these statements in the proper order and discuss the meaning of each one.
a. The project manager and functional manager meet face-to-face and try to work out the problem.
b. Both the project and functional managers deny that any problems exist between them.
c. The project and functional managers begin formally and informally to anticipate the problems that can occur.
d. Both managers readily admit responsibility for several of the problems.
e. Each manager blames the other for the problem.
5–35 John is a functional support manager with fourteen highly competent individuals beneath him. John’s main concern is performance. He has a tendency to leave scheduling and cost prob- lems up to the project managers. During the past two months, John has intermittently received phone calls and casual visits from upper-level management and senior executives asking him about his department’s costs and schedules on a variety of projects. Although he can answer al- most all of the performance questions, he has experienced great difficulty in responding to time and cost questions. John is a little apprehensive that if this situation continues, it may affect his evaluation and merit pay increase. What are John’s alternatives?
5–36 Projects have a way of providing a “chance for glory” for many individuals.
Unfortunately, they quite often give the not-so-creative individual an opportunity to demonstrate his incompetence. Examples would include the designer who always feels that he has a better way of laying out a blueprint, or the individual who intentionally closes a door when asked to open it, or vice versa. How should a project manager handle this situation? Would your answer change if the individual were quite competent but always did the opposite just to show his indi- viduality? Should these individuals be required to have close supervision? If close supervision is required, should it be the responsibility of the functional manager, the project office, or both?