In BS EN ISO 8402 a quality system is defined as `[the] organisa- tional structure, procedures, processes and resources for imple- menting quality management' (BSI, 1995: p. 26). As the cup of tea example demonstrates, subsequent to having made decisions about the way a process is carried out (organised), and the materials and equipment that are required (resources), it is still essential to ensure that the person(s) given the task of achieving the desired objective are capable of carrying out particular tasks in a way that is both competent and consistent. The former element ± competency ± is assumed to be taken into consideration when employees are selected.35 Additionally, the use of training is considered to be important to ensure that employees are aware of how to use new technology and skills. However, despite the view that people can be allowed to use their skill to decide how a particular task should be performed, it is normal to encourage the use of procedures that describe `standard' practice.36
Procedures, therefore, are considered to represent guidance to people on the methods/tools they should use for tasks or activities that are normally considered to be routine. Thus, provided that these procedures have been created on the basis of `capturing' what isagreed37to represent best practice, compliance with them will be considered to be unproblematic. There are those who argue that a documented quality system, precisely because it involves using written procedures, is unlikely to allow an organisation to achieve improvement (Seddon, 1997). There is a certain amount of validity to this argument. From previous research (McCabe, 1999), it can be seen that this has brought about the use of what are perceived to be bureaucratic procedures. This is due to the following reasons:
. Procedures that are created without the agreement of those who will be expected to comply with them
. Procedures that are `over-written' because of too many words, or have technical, jargonistic or misleading language
. The use of the quality system turns into what has been referred to as a `paper tiger' (operating the system becomes a bureaucratic exercise in itself)
. Because the operation of the quality system is audited, there is a tendency for people to `merely do enough' to comply with the procedures ± doing any more than this is regarded as being a waste of effort
This state of affairs has been seen to represent an `audit culture'.
Accordingly, the use of a quality system becomes something that disables people rather than enabling them. This does not have to be the case. Any procedure must explicitly tell the user what they should do (and if for any reason this involves doing something that is not obvious, why). The aim is usually to ensure that by following the procedure the result(s) of the process are consistent. It is for this reason that the use of diagrams or pictures is an entirely sensible way of providing procedures.38
Clear and informative procedures are also found to be vital if the person carrying out this process is taken ill or takes a holiday (something that frequently happens). In this situation, it is possible to instruct another person to carry out the task with little risk of the end result being any less consistent than before. As excellent organisations have discovered, ensuring consistency in the stan- dard of the product or service that customers receive is essential;
any failure to meet expectations is unlikely to attract sympathy, regardless of the cause.
The problem of procedures that require too much paperwork can usually be overcome by the use of simple methods of checklists. For instance, often when going into the toilet of a restaurant it may be noticed that there is a sheet of paper that records (using a tick) the number of times that it has been cleaned. Using a tick or initials of the person carrying out the task is an efficient method of providing a record that allows for immediacy in auditing. Clearly, what is important as far as the customer is concerned is that the task per- formed matches their level of satisfaction. On one memorable occasion in the toilet of a restaurant, the control could see that they had supposedly been cleaned only an hour before but still smelled awful. Even though there may have been a reason for this, it is strongly suspected that this was a case of `tick box syndrome' ± that
is, that the cleaner(s) were dishonestly pretending to have done the task. If this is allowed to happen, the quality system will soon fall into disrepute.
5.5.1 The use of quality systems in continuous improvement
Oakland explains that the procedures of any quality system form what he suggests are like the slats on a rotating drum, the objective of which is to create a `delighted customer' (Oakland, 1999: p. 86).
As he describes, the managers must ensure that all of the necessary elements are in place to continuously turn the drum. Crucially, he stresses, it is important that the procedures are carried out with a desire to monitor (measure) their effectiveness in attaining the objectives of the process. Thus, he asserts, any changes that are implemented to create improvement in the overall process must be incorporated into the documented procedure immediately:
The overriding requirement is that the systems must reflect the established practices of the organisation [and] improved where necessary to bring them into line with current and future requirements. (Oakland, 1999: p. 88)
The issues of reflecting what really goes on was something that was described in Chapter 4, which explained what organisational culture involves. In particular, there is the problem of `espoused theories' (what is suggested happens) being different to `theories in practice' (what those who carry out activities consider really goes on). If those who must use the quality system do not believe it reflects what really goes on, it will lack credibility. As a con- sequence, the likelihood of audits indicating that procedures are being ignored will be increased; something which third-party assessors must drawattention to in their reports. Therefore, to ensure that users do not perceive the quality system to be lacking in credibility, what it contains must both be a reflection of `the way that things are done here' (a simple definition of culture), and provide information that is believed to be useful.
The effect of using benchmarking will be to encourage and assist employees to think of different ± even radical ± ways of carrying out their day-to-day duties. In effect, there is the desire to support a culture in which people view the use of procedures as being a process in itself, and most especially, one in which the aim is con- stant improvement. This approach is consistent with the philosophy
of Deming who recommended that every task should be subject to an improvement cycle (see Fig. 5.3).
As this diagram indicates, the cycle is continuous, and therefore the result of diagnosis of action that has already occurred should result in alteration in howfuture action is planned. Deming argued this approach should be adopted by every person. As a result, he suggested, improvement in the overall process must inevitably result. Figure 5.4 adapts Deming's PDCA cycle to ensure that the desire to improve everything drives the whole system, including, it should be stressed, those who are external to the main supply organisation.
As this diagram also shows, this model draws attention to sub- contractors and suppliers. This is an important point to remember, because as any customer will discover if they examine the process by which the product or service they have purchased/consumed occurred, it is extremely rare that only one organisation was involved. Therefore, the quality system must actively engage in improvement, not only as a result of what the external customer tells you, but also by ensuring that suggestions by those who create components or services are included. The desire to create closer relationships with key suppliers and subcontractors is commonly
Write down what happens
Consider whether this is the best way to do it
If it is the best way (using existing resources/tools) create a procedure
Should there be a need to carry out the task again, repeat in accordance with the procedure
Prepare a network to show what was supposed to be done (in accordance with the procedure); this will usually
require a written record
Constantly search for better ways to do it
Fig. 5.3 The search for continuous improvement in procedures.
known as partnering, something that can equally apply to the relationship that an organisation has with its key customers. The benefit of this sort of relationship is that, like getting to knowclose friends, it becomes much easier to understand needs, expectations, ambitions and most especially, potential weaknesses.
All parties have a vested interest in improving all aspects of the processes which contribute to the final outcome ± customer satis- faction. Returning to Deming's cycle which is in Chapter 3, he believed that the result of better quality is to make the customer want to come back for more. This will benefit all. Therefore, if those who supply you can assist in identifying ways of improving exist- ing methods of working, the likely consequence is to improve the satisfaction levels of the customer. Clearly, if better methods are found to be possible, they should be incorporated into the overall system. The objective, it should be noted, is for every person to constantly search for ways to enhance the satisfaction levels of the customer. As Chapter 7 will explain, customer satisfaction is the part of the EFQM Excellence Model which has the potential for the highest score. Therefore, the ability to benchmark and measure customer satisfaction is very important. It is this issue that the next chapter considers.
PLAN DO
INPUTS
OUTPUTS Producer
or supplier
Overall system for controlling activities
Feedback
Feedback Subcontractors
Suppliers
CHECK ACT
Customer
Feedback from customer (measures of satisfaction) Fig. 5.4 Overall improvement in total processes.
Summary
In order to be successful in benchmarking, it is essential that the senior managers of an organisation decide upon what its mis- sion is. This is crucial to provide all employees with a clear idea of the objectives that are to be attained. It should therefore be communicated to every person in the organisation in language that is clear and unambiguous.
. Subsequent to the mission having been decided upon, it is necessary to translate it into what are known as critical suc- cess factors (CSFs). CSFs provide a focus for what people will be aiming to achieve in order to ensure that the mission is successful within the period that has been allotted.
. Corresponding with CSFs are what are known as key per- formance indicators (KPIs). KPIs are the measures that are used to provide targets against which progress towards achievement of CSFs can be assessed. As such, the develop- ment of KPIs should be achieved in consultation with those people who are directly involved in the carrying out of pro- cesses (see below)
. In order to ensure that the improvement effort can be oper- ationalised, it is essential that each CSF and the KPIs asso- ciated with it are considered with direct respect to the day-to- day processes that are carried out.
. Unless what happens within the processes can be changed and made to occur more effectively, the likelihood of being able to showthat the KPIs associated with the CSFs have improved will be reduced. As a result, it is necessary to consult those people who have direct involvement with the sub-processes, activities and tasks.
. In order to assist the exploration of the process, sub-process, activities and tasks, it is recommended that a technique called process mapping should be used. This technique requires that rather than describing what goes on, a pictorial repre- sentation is used. As a consequence, it should be simpler to identify boundaries and potential areas that can be improved.
. Any changes that are made to the process and which result in improvement are carried out consistently by the alteration of procedures which directly concern the execution of activities and/or tasks.