This is a technique that involves describing ± using pictorial representations ± howa process is carried out. As should become apparent on examination of the process, there will normally be a number of steps. Each step may involve the completion of a specific task that is essential before subsequent tasks can commence; there is sequential dependence. Some tasks may be capable of being carried out simultaneously. Anyone who has ever studied a critical path chart will see this sort of sequence very clearly.
In order to illustrate howa simple process can be mapped, the reader should consider what would be involved in making one cup
of hot tea. In order to achieve a result that would be considered
`satisfactory', the following steps or conditions must be achieved.
(1) That it is possible to find the basic materials required ± teabag, water, milk and, if necessary to provide the right taste, sugar (2) That there is essential equipment (cup, kettle and spoon) and
the means by which to heat the water (3) That the water is placed into the kettle (4) That the heat is turned on
(5) That there is a method of knowing when the water is boiled (either manually or the use of a whistling kettle)
(6) That the water is successfully poured into the cup containing the bag
(7) That after a reasonable time (depending on the desired strength of tea) the bag is removed using the spoon
(8) That the spoon is used to stir a quantity of milk and sugar that the consumer has decided is necessary for an acceptable taste As you might reasonably say, this an overly technical way of considering what is a simple process that we frequently do without thinking. That is the point about understanding what goes on in carrying out day-to-day activities in an organisation: because they are done so often, no one bothers to think any more. As a consequence, the attitude will probably be, `Why should we do it any differently? It's always been done like that'.
So, in considering the cup of tea, howshould it be mapped?
Figure 5.2 would be a reasonable representation of the eight steps being carried out in a linear sequence. As previously suggested, this is such a mundane process that no one usually considers it neces- sary to think about what goes on. Indeed, it is usual to do other things while the kettle is boiling, such as watching television, or making a sandwich. However, what is important about describing this apparently simple process is that by breaking it into discrete steps, it is possible to think about changes in one or more of them that may create certain improvements. The nature of such improvements may be, for example, in the time it takes to complete the process of achieving the cup of hot tea. By examining the map in Fig. 5.2, it will be clear that the step which takes longest is that in which the water is boiled. Therefore, if the whole process is to be completed more quickly, it will be necessary to change the method of boiling the water by using a microwave or `high-speed' electric kettle.
In this simple example there is only one person, and it is that
person who normally decides how long the teabag should remain in the cup. This, as anyone who has made a cup of tea this way will have discovered, is dependent upon a certain amount of judgement (time and the colour of the water). However, if one wanted to ensure that the taste was consistently strong or weak ± depending on the desired taste ± it would be necessary to consider specifying the following:
(1) The strength of the bags being used (brands differ) (2) The length of time it takes to create a particular taste
(3) The amount of milk and, if required, sugar that must be added Therefore, if someone else was required to achieve the satisfac- tory cup of tea, it would be necessary to provide exact procedures that this person could understand, and be capable of complying with. This is the objective of creating a documented quality system.
What this involves, is described in the next section.
Using the example of the cup of tea as a process demonstrates that such an apparently trivial task is more complex than it might appear, and that the end result is dependent upon variables that occur in certain steps, and which, in turn, influence subsequent steps. This is a crucial point, because as Codling points out with respect to processes, it is the `boundaries' between each step that are frequently the `root of problems or dysfunctions' (Codling, 1992:
p. 61). In any organisation where processes far more complicated than making a cup of tea are required to create the product or service, howcan it be possible to see where improvement is possible without first mapping the process? Clearly, the more accurate the information that is elicited to provide the process map, the easier it will be to identify potential areas for improvement in the overall process. It is important to stress that the key to success in doing this, is to consistently do the following things:
. Know what the `end' customer's requirements are, and what is needed to achieve them
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6
Step 7 Step 8
A 'satisfactory' cup of tea
Fig. 5.2 A process map for making a cup of tea.
. Knowthe requirements of those involved in each next step of the process, so that those in preceding steps can achieve them using adequate resources
. Use benchmarking in order to learn howbest practice can be implemented in the process
. Using procedures which are easily understood by users, docu- ment howparticular tasks/activities should be carried out As the next section explains, documented procedures are what normally constitute the basis of a management system, particularly a quality system such as one that conforms to ISO 9000 (BSI, 1994).