It is clear from a review of the literature that there is only limited information on the effects of foodborne trace elements and other nutritional factors on fish and wildlife. There is an extensive database on foodborne selenium toxicity to a variety of fish species compared to information available for other trace elements. Yet, the information on dietary-selenium toxicity to fish is incomplete because few of the possible interactions of selenium with nutritional factors or with other trace elements have been examined. In comparison, the single dietary toxicity test with one species of fish and vanadium, which was thought by researchers to have dietary toxicity comparable to that of selenium, is a glaring information gap that would hinder a hazard assessment where vanadium might be a potential contributor to stresses in the aquatic ecosystem. The few dietary tests with other elements, such as arsenic, cesium, chromium, cobalt, lead, mercury, and uranium, and limited tests with cadmium, copper, and zinc are also major information gaps in need of research.
Adequate hazard assessments must incorporate information from not only waterborne expo- sures, but also dietary exposures. In-depth studies with foodborne mixtures of trace elements, such
as those conducted by Woodward, Farag, and coworkers in the Clark Fork River and Coeur d’Alene River, provide valuable information about specific ecosystem hazard assessments. However, dietary studies gave conflicting results when fish were fed nauplii of brine shrimp briefly exposed to a mixture of trace elements in an effort to simulate trace-element concentrations in food organisms in the Clark Fork River. This latter study shows the need for careful experimental design if environmental conditions are to be adequately simulated in laboratory studies.
The emphasis in aquatic toxicology over the past few decades has been on waterborne exposures.
Consequently, national water-quality standards have been propagated based on a waterborne approach. Recent studies have shown that single-element criteria do not account for interactions with other waterborne factors such as other trace elements or water characteristics. Limited infor- mation from dietary studies with trace elements, especially selenium, show that diet can be an important contributor to toxic effects observed in contaminated ecosystems, yet water-quality standards do not consider potential effects from dietary exposures. Incorporation of dietary criteria into national criteria for trace elements will occur only after a sufficient database of information is generated from dietary toxicity studies.
Fewer trace element/nutrition interaction studies have been conducted with wildlife species than with fish, and most of these studies have been conducted with avian wildlife. Nearly all of the studies conducted with birds fall into three categories: (1) selenium-related interactions between nutritional factors and other trace elements, (2) lead-related studies of nutritional factors including trace elements, and (3) only a few studies with other trace elements such as aluminum. Recent findings with environmentally relevant forms of mercury (methylmercury) and selenium (selenom- ethionine) in birds have shown that mercury and selenium may be antagonistic to each other in adult birds but synergistic to the reproductive process in embryos. Therefore, further investigations in birds are warranted to compare the interactions of various forms of mercury and selenium, particularly with respect to effects on reproduction and teratogenesis. The ability of selenium to restore the activities of G-6-PDH, GSH peroxidase, and GSH status involved in antioxidative defense mechanisms may be crucial to biological protection from the toxic effects of methylmercury in adults. Further studies are needed to examine the relationship between selenium and other trace elements that may be toxic by compromising cellular antioxidative defense mechanisms.
Virtually no trace element/nutrition interaction studies have been conducted with mammalian wildlife, probably because the human-health-effects literature and the agricultural-nutrition literature are abundant with interaction studies conducted with laboratory rodents as well as other species of domestic mammals, which are viewed by some as surrogate species for mammalian wildlife.
However, there are many unique species of wild mammals with varied sensitivities to certain classes of contaminants including trace elements, as reviewed by Shore and Rattner.236 Therefore, there is a need for comparative interaction studies in these species, particularly with respect to locations where multiple trace-element contaminants exist and other nutritional conditions may be suboptimal.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Aida Farag and Gary Heinz for reviewing the chapter.
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