Promoting language and literacy in young

KEYWORDS—dual language learners; English language learners; bilingual learners; oral language and literacy; early education; instructional strategies; language of instruction; programing

Promoting Language and Literacy in Young Dual Language Learners: Research, Practice, and Policy Dina C Castro,1Mariela M Pa´ez,2David K Dickinson,3and Ellen Frede4

1University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,2Boston College,3Vanderbilt University,

and4Rutgers University

ABSTRACT—Research evidence supports the importance of

a high-quality early education to foster young children’s

school readiness and success In particular, programs that

focus on eliminating the readiness gap for young minority

children, including dual language learners (DLLs), have

increased in importance given the current demographic

shifts in the United States and the need to promote

learn-ing in the early years This article discusses current

knowl-edge about effective instructional strategies for promoting

language and literacy development among young DLLs It

presents a brief summary of research on the relationship

between oral language and literacy development, reviews

instructional practices and language of instruction

approaches, and concludes with recommendations for

policy and future research

KEYWORDS—dual language learners; English language

learners; bilingual learners; oral language and literacy;

early education; instructional strategies; language of

instruction; programing

Prompted by recent policies and research on the importance of

early education, the federal government and many states are

making major investments in early childhood programs (Barnett,

Hustedt, et al., 2007) This is occurring while enrollment of

children whose primary language is not English is increasing

dramatically in early childhood programs nationwide, a trend

projected to continue (Hernandez, 2004; Hernandez, Denton, & Macartney, 2007) This article discusses current knowledge about effective instructional strategies for promoting language and literacy development among young dual language learners (DLLs), offers policy recommendations, and identifies areas that need further research

National studies show that DLL children from low-income fam-ilies lag behind their peers when they enter kindergarten, even if they attended early childhood programs The gap in academic achievement widens as children grow older (e.g., Reardon & Galindo, 2006; U.S Department of Education, 2000) These find-ings suggest the need for high-quality early education focused on reducing the school readiness gap Such programs should utilize research-based instructional practices designed to address the specific needs of DLLs, promoting their school readiness and future school success (The Future of Children, 2005; National Task Force on Early Childhood Education for Hispanics, 2007) IMPORTANCE OF ORAL LANGUAGE TO PROMOTE

LITERACY DEVELOPMENT Studies with monolingual English speakers have demonstrated the central role of oral language in reading and academic suc-cess Recently, some large and sophisticated studies have inves-tigated oral language development in DLLs

Reading comprehension is foundational for academic success and an important instructional goal in preschool and primary grades Comprehension becomes possible when children can decode unfamiliar words Skilled decoding requires phonemic awareness—the ability to attend to phonemes, knowledge of letters, and association between graphemes and phonemes (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998) Early decoding skills are fostered by strong oral language competence, and that language is key to subsequent reading comprehension (e.g., Dickinson, McCabe, Anastasopoulos, Peisner-Feinberg, &

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to

Dina C Castro, FPG Child Development Institute, The University of

North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 105 Smith Level Rd., CB# 8180,

Chapel Hill, NC 27599-8180; e-mail: Dina_Castro@unc.edu.

ª 2011 The Authors

Child Development Perspectives ª 2011 The Society for Research in Child Development

Poe, 2003; Vellutino, Tunmer, Jaccard, & Chen, 2007) The size

of a child’s vocabulary is important to reading comprehension,

but deep knowledge of words may be particularly important

(Ouellette, 2006) Bilingual children’s need for deep knowledge

(Verhallen & Schoonen, 1998) may be met by teaching word

meanings explicitly in different linguistic contexts, with

repeti-tion and multiple opportunities to use the words (Collins, 2005;

Silverman, 2007)

Longitudinal studies with monolingual English speakers find

that children’s language abilities at a given time play a powerful

role in shaping their subsequent reading success (Scarborough,

2001; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998, 2001) For example,

research with monolingual English speakers revealed that

kindergarten vocabulary predicts fourth-grade (Spira, Bracken,

& Fischel, 2005) and seventh-grade (Tabors, Snow, & Dickinson,

2001) reading Likewise, preschoolers’ language skills were

asso-ciated with third- and fourth-grade reading comprehension

(NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2005; Storch &

Whitehurst, 2002)

For DLLs, the development of language and literacy involves

the integration of component skills (e.g., sound-symbol

aware-ness, grammatical knowledge, vocabulary knowledge), as well as

more elusive sociocultural variables Bilingual learners can and

do develop second language literacy while acquiring second

lan-guage oral proficiency Furthermore, bilingual learners’ oral,

reading, and writing skills interact with one another, creating

complex relationships of mutual support (Brisk & Harrington,

2007) For example, children are exposed to language through

listening and reading, which are receptive language uses, and

this exposure leads to developments in speaking and writing,

which are productive Moreover, reading is important for

devel-oping oral vocabulary, which in turn promotes speaking and can

enhance writing

Research with DLLs indicates that instruction should focus on

developing oral language skills by providing rich and engaging

language environments while simultaneously building early

liter-acy skills A recent research review concluded that instruction

in the key components of reading, as identified by the National

Reading Panel (2000)—including phonological and phonemic

awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text

comprehen-sion—benefits DLLs (August & Shanahan, 2006) However, the

reviewers added:

Instruction in the key components of reading is necessary—but not

sufficient—for teaching language-minority students to read and

write proficiently in English Oral proficiency in English is critical

as well—but student performance suggests that it is often

over-looked in instruction (August & Shanahan, 2006, p 4)

Therefore, instruction of DLLs should emphasize the

develop-ment of both oral language and early literacy skills

In addition, various studies have shown that a strong basis in

the first language promotes school achievement in the second

language and is important to ensure that children do not become

alienated from their families and communities (Tabors, 1997; Wong Fillmore, 1991) Learning two languages does not cause confusion or language delays in young children, and teaching both languages actually facilitates English language learning (August & Hakuta, 1997; Bialystok, 2007)

Research examining the precursors to literacy has also shown the importance of phonological awareness and print knowledge,

in addition to oral language proficiency, in supporting second language development Investigations with DLLs indicate that phonological awareness skills transfer from the first to the second language (Chiappe & Siegel, 1999; Cisero & Royer, 1995) However, this transfer varies according to similarities and differ-ences between the two languages Studies examining these rela-tionships among bilingual children from different language groups (e.g., Chinese, Spanish, Hebrew) found that the extent of transferability of these skills depends on the relations between languages and between writing systems (Bialystok, Luk, & Kwan, 2005) Also, seeing that texts written in different ways can have the same meaning gives DLLs insight about the invariance of print Therefore, for DLLs, acquiring print knowledge in either language may facilitate the development of these abilities in the other language (Bialystok, 2007)

We need further research to advance our understanding about how young DLLs from different language backgrounds develop language and literacy skills Nevertheless, there is already some knowledge that can guide the development of interventions for these populations We know, for example, that oral and written language experiences for DLLs should be regarded as an addi-tive process, to ensure that children are able to maintain and develop their first language while learning to speak and read English We also know that there are specific language and liter-acy practices that can promote learning during the early years and provide a solid foundation for reading success

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES TO PROMOTE LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN YOUNG DLLS Several research syntheses have identified specific instructional practices to promote language and literacy of DLLs (August & Shanahan, 2006; Gersten et al., 2007; Slavin & Cheung, 2005) Although most of this research focuses on K–12 instruction, it has important implications for preschool education that can be summarized in three major recommendations (Goldenberg, 2008): (a) using the primary language in teaching reading skills

is more effective for English reading achievement than immers-ing children in English; (b) high-quality early childhood practices are as beneficial for DLLs as they are for non-DLLs; however, they are not sufficient to support an equal level of academic success among DLLs; therefore, (c) instructional enhancements are necessary to support DLLs’ language and literacy develop-ment, especially when instruction is conducted only in English For most DLLs throughout the United States, language and lit-eracy instructions occur within an English language environment,

with monolingual English-speaking teachers If DLLs have no

support in their first language, they might find it very difficult to

become active classroom members This is what Tabors (1998)

has defined as:

the double bind of second-language learning: to learn a new

lan-guage, you have to be socially accepted by those who speak the

language; but to be socially accepted, you have to be able to speak

the new language (p 22)

General recommendations for promoting language and literacy

development among DLLs include: (a) keeping consistent

rou-tines and classroom organization so that children can follow

activities, feel comfortable, and become socially integrated; (b)

creating language- and literacy-rich environments and using

sup-portive methods: visual aids, gestures, emphasizing important

words in a sentence, keeping the message simple, and repeating

key vocabulary words; and (c) using a curriculum that helps

DLLs actively participate by providing concrete experiences and

materials, and being responsive to cultural and linguistic

differ-ences (Dickinson & Tabors, 2002; Tabors, 1998)

Additionally, research has shown that the following general

strategies can enhance and tend to be associated with improved

language learning for all children: (a) extended talk on a single

topic, (b) opportunities to converse with teachers, (c) exposure to

sophisticated vocabulary, and (d) intellectually challenging

group discussions (Dickinson, Flushman, & Freiberg, 2009) To

be effective with DLLs, the implementation of these strategies

should take into account children’s proficiency in English, using

children’s first language as needed

Considerable research evidence indicates that the use of

bilin-gual children’s first language in instruction leads to higher social,

cognitive, and academic achievement levels (for a review, see

Garcia, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008) Supporting this approach is

research demonstrating linguistic interdependence between

lan-guages, including linguistic factors, familiarity with language

and literacy practices, and ways of using languages (Cummins,

1979, 1981, 2000) Use of the first language will depend on

chil-dren’s developmental phase of second language learning and

the goals of the instructional approach used (i.e., English-only,

bilingual transitional, two-way instruction) Also, it will vary

according to the availability of bilingual staff It may seem

daunting for monolingual English-speaking teachers to consider

supporting DLLs in their first language, but it is possible, and

there is research documenting strategies to help teachers

incor-porate support for children’s first language For example, the

pri-mary language can be used to promote vocabulary development

and oral language comprehension through systematically

planned storytelling activities (Gillanders & Castro, 2007)

Several studies have identified strategies to support DLLs:

(a) conduct ongoing and frequent assessments to monitor

children’s English language acquisition and development in the

different developmental domains (Lesaux & Siegel, 2003);

(b) provide focused small-group interventions, especially to DLLs

at risk for reading and math difficulties (e.g., McMaster, Shu-Hsuan Kung, & Cao, 2008; Vaughn et al., 2006); (c) provide explicit vocabulary instruction that can be done through read-alouds and direct teaching of core vocabulary, using the primary language strategically (Carlo et al., 2004; Castro, Gillanders, Machado-Casas, & Buysse, 2006); (d) ensure development of academic English (Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kiefer, & Rivera, 2006); and (e) promote socioemotional development through posi-tive teacher–child relationships and facilitate children’s partici-pation in the sociocultural group of the classroom (Gillanders, 2007; Howes & Ritchie, 2002)

To implement these instructional practices, schools need program policies and resources, as well as teacher characteristics and a curriculum that will provide an adequate context for them For example, programs will need to allow the use of the primary language in instruction, hire qualified bilingual staff, provide ongoing professional development and materials (such as bilin-gual books and music), and engage families of DLLs in partner-ing with the program or teacher to support their children’s language and literacy development in both their primary lan-guage and English (Castro, Espinosa, & Pa´ez, 2010) Teachers, both bilingual and nonbilingual, will need to be knowledgeable about how language and literacy development unfolds in DLLs and about instructional practices that support development and learning among these children (see Zepeda, Castro, & Cronin, this issue, for a review on teacher preparation for work-ing with young DLLs) The curriculum will need to support the use of first and second language development, providing opportu-nities to incorporate instructional enhancements targeting DLLs Many factors may affect the impact of these instructional strat-egies on promoting language and literacy in DLLs, including the amount of exposure to rich primary language, the amount of exposure to English, the extent of DLLs’ early literacy learning opportunities, the socioeconomic status and family resources available to support the child, and the timing and circumstances

of immigration to the United States, as well as factors related to the child, such as personality, motivation, and learning style (Espinosa, Castro, Crawford, & Gillanders, 2007)

LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION APPROACHES IN EARLY

EDUCATION

A key issue in the education of young DLLs is language of instruction Four major research reviews have recently concluded that children in bilingual programs typically score higher on tests

of English than do children in all-English immersion programs (Francis, Lesaux, & August, 2006; Genesse, Lindolm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2005; Rolstad, Mahoney, & Glass, 2005; Slavin & Cheung, 2005) Despite the accumulating evidence that bilingual and first language education are at least as effective

as English immersion, these approaches remain controversial (Barnett, Yarosz, et al., 2007) Most studies reviewed in these publications concern students in early elementary and upper

grades, with limited research investigating language of instruction

in preschool settings

Studies of preschool DLLs suggest that bilingual programs and

approaches that support and develop children’s first language

skills may have important advantages (Barnett et al., 2007; Pa´ez,

Tabors, & Lo´pez, 2007; Tabors, Pa´ez, & Lo´pez, 2003) Current

research on the relationship between first and second language

acquisition suggests that access to bilingual programing can

assist young DLLs in their language and literacy development

(August & Shanahan, 2006) For example, research with

Span-ish-speaking bilingual children has shown that first language

skills and growth in Spanish contribute to the development of

reading skills in English (Hammer, Lawrence, & Miccio, 2007;

Pa´ez & Rinaldi, 2006; Rinaldi & Pa´ez, 2008)

Among language of instruction approaches, two-way

immer-sion (TWI) is emerging as an effective and common approach to

address the needs of bilingual learners (Barnett et al., 2007;

Howard, Sugarman, & Christian, 2003) Also referred to as dual

language programs, TWI provides DLLs and native English

speakers with an education in two languages A recent study by

Barnett et al used random assignment of DLLs and

monolin-gual English speakers to either a TWI or an English immersion

preschool program, to compare the educational effectiveness of

these approaches Their findings indicate that both TWI and

English immersion approaches boosted learning and

develop-ment in English for all children, including DLLs More

impor-tantly, TWI also improved the Spanish language development of

DLLs and native English speakers without losses in English

language learning However, as Barnett et al (2007) noted,

more research regarding the effectiveness of the TWI model is

needed to provide a sound basis for policy and practice in early

education

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY

Policy recommendations derived from the research we

dis-cussed before involve establishing and implementing

evi-dence-based curriculum and classroom practices in language

and literacy, including differentiated instruction for all

chil-dren We argue that to provide high-quality early education

to an increasingly diverse child population, instruction should

include specific classroom practices targeting DLLs, in

addi-tion to those known to enhance language and literacy

devel-opment for all children Therefore, language and literacy

early learning standards, and the curricula and classroom

practices that derive from them, should reflect the current

understanding of development and learning for all children,

including DLLs

Recently, the number of states establishing early learning

standards has increased, but there is no consistency among

states about how to support DLLs’ learning Some states’ early

learning standards include provisions to support DLLs that

reflect an understanding of the current knowledge base, but

others do not For instance, although some states acknowledge and promote the development of DLLs’ primary language, others have banned the use of the primary language in the classroom

We propose that to provide the appropriate context for the implementation of instruction that is effective in promoting language and literacy in DLLs, early learning standards and program policies should include provisions that promote and enhance dual language learning, including teacher preparation, family support, and availability of resources Examples of those provisions include the following:

1 Institute teacher licensure regulations and teacher education accreditation criteria requiring coursework in second lan-guage acquisition and in specific teaching strategies to sup-port DLLs and their families, combined with at least minimal proficiency in a second language

2 Offer teachers ongoing support to implement early learning standards including systematic efforts to ensure that teachers employ strategies that foster children’s learning of the lan-guage used in the classroom, and use the children’s primary language to support instruction

3 Ensure that curriculum models and teaching strategies are designed for, and evaluated with, the population with which they will be implemented, and include content and learning strategies that reflect the current state of knowledge

4 Ensure the provision of resources for enhancing language and literacy-based materials, incorporating culturally relevant materials that inspire interesting conversations, as well as books in children’s first languages, and

5 Incorporate strategies and resources to assist families in sup-porting DLLs first language development and maintenance that is linked to classroom instruction

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

As we discussed above, there are gaps in our current knowledge about basic dual language and literacy learning and effective classroom practices To improve instruction for DLLs, researchers must address these gaps Some important research topics to advance our understanding of language and literacy development for young DLL are as follows:

1 Language development of preschool children who are learn-ing English for the first time after the acquisition of their first language

2 Impact of English immersion programs on children’s first lan-guage development

3 How learning early literacy skills in the first language affects literacy development in English

Also, research studies are needed to examine strategies and interventions to improve outcomes for young DLLs Relevant research questions include the following:

1 What are the most effective instructional approaches to

promote language and literacy in young DLLs? Do those

instructional approaches have a long-lasting effect on

chil-dren’s development and learning? To what extent does general

program quality influence the effectiveness of language of

instruction approaches and instructional practices?

2 How do language of instruction and specific instructional

enhancements affect language and literacy development of

DLLs from diverse language minority groups?

3 To what extent do factors related to the school, family, and

child moderate the impact of instructional practices on DLLs’

language and literacy development? How do teacher

knowl-edge of language and literacy development and bilingual

development relate to teaching strategies and child

out-comes? What effect do teacher and parent attitudes about first

language maintenance have on child learning?

These are some relevant recommendations based on the

current state of knowledge regarding the education of young

DLLs Although there are still many questions unanswered, a

body of knowledge exists that should guide teachers and policy

makers in implementing practices that will start closing the

school readiness gap, thus providing the opportunity of school

success to the growing number of DLL children in the United

States

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