25 ways to improve learning a collection

Issues and Discussion Healthy physical development: Healthy physical development is essential for learning, including good overall health, adequate nutrition, and age-appropriate gross

25 Ways to Improve Learning

A collection of research briefs on quality

education from the IIEP Learning Portal

Edited by Catherine A Honeyman with contributions from Que Anh Dang, Anna Persson,

Matthew Thomas, and Matthew Waugh

© International Institute for Educational Planning, 2016

Executive Summary

Following the recent negotiations on the Sustainable Development Goals, leaders around the world

have committed to ensuring quality primary and secondary education for their populations As

Presidents, Prime Ministers, and royalty turn to their Ministries of Education to accomplish this goal, planners may justifiably wonder how to prioritize their time and funding in order to achieve “relevant and effective learning” for all

There have been many studies of the factors that contribute to educational quality, and many models have been developed to illustrate their interrelationships A great deal of research shows that teacher quality is the most important factor affecting students’ learning outcomes However, both teacher quality and student learning are connected to many other issues: teacher education and motivation; learner characteristics and available support structures; curriculum and materials; school characteristics and leadership; and the management of the education system as a whole

Education is complex, but planners need clarity Here, we summarize the research to give you 25 ways

to improve learning in just one sentence each For more details, take a look at the research briefs presented in this document, and the resources on the IIEP Learning Portal

25 Ways to Improve Learning Learners & Support Structures

1 Ensure that all students—at all ages—arrive at school ready to learn by attending to the basic pre-requisites for learning: protecting children’s physical and socio-emotional health, and ensuring that they have enough time to rest, study, and play

2 Implement a mix of centre- and home-based early childhood education programming that focuses on the holistic development of the child while supporting parenting skills

3 Support school professionals to teach to the diverse cognitive abilities of all students

4 Involve parents in promoting, encouraging, and enriching their child’s learning

5 Coordinate with other social services in order to help resolve the socio-economic inequities that contribute to lower learning outcomes for disadvantaged children

Teachers & Pedagogy

6 Recruit enough strong teacher candidates into the profession and deploy them equitably throughout the education system

7 Motivate teachers by improving their status and conditions

8 Prepare future teachers for the realities of their teaching contexts through strong coursework

in pedagogical content knowledge and field experiences

9 Empower teachers to use effective and appropriate pedagogy, using a range of approaches to meet the needs of different content areas, different children, and different contexts

10 Support in-service teachers through context-relevant, on-going, and collaborative opportunities for continuous professional development

Curriculum & Materials

11 Teach children in their mother tongue language for at least 6 years before they switch fully to

a different language of instruction

12 Develop relevant and effective curriculum and standards, and ensure their dissemination and implementation

13 Procure relevant and effective textbooks and teachers’ guides, and ensure that students and teachers have regular access to them

14 Use cost-effective supplementary materials to enrich teaching in every subject, to engage students in multi-dimensional learning, and to build students’ abilities to apply their knowledge

15 Develop the digital literacy of teachers and students through appropriate and cost-effective use of information and communications technology (ICT)

Schools & Classrooms

16 Prepare and support school leaders who have a vision for improving quality and learning outcomes, and who are also effective at ongoing management tasks

17 Design the physical school space to be accessible, safe, hygienic, reasonably comfortable, and cognitively stimulating

18 Institute school-wide policies that reinforce positive school relationships through open dialogue and violence prevention, that ensure a reasonable student workload, and that promote students’ sense that what they are learning is meaningful

19 Ensure students have enough time to learn in school by adhering to planned schedules, improving teacher attendance and motivation, and building skills for effective classroom

management and quality instruction

20 Ensure student achievement is assessed throughout the year, that diverse methods of instruction and assessment methods are utilised, and that assessment practises meet quality

Education System Management

21 Ground education sector analysis and strategic planning in reliable research and data to identify priority issues and means for improving learning outcomes

22 Allow decentralized decision-making to determine the most important local priorities for learning, while ensuring that capacity-building and other resources are distributed fairly

23 Ensure school inspections give accurate reports and explicit feedback to inform the school’s improvement plan

24 Design large-scale and summative assessments that are valid, reliable, and equitable, and use the resulting data to improve learning through systemic change

25 Dedicate sufficient resources to education and design school funding formulae to link resource deployment with key inputs and processes that can improve learning outcomes Does your education system meet all of these recommendations? Read on to learn more about specific issues you can address to improve the quality of the education offered to children and youth

in your context

Table of Contents

Executive Summary 3

The theory behind the Improve Learning model 9

Learners & Support Structures 13

Basic pre-requisites for learning 15

Early childhood education 19

Diverse learning abilities and challenges 23

Parental and community involvement in learning 27

Social inequities 31

Teachers & Pedagogy 35

Recruiting and deploying effective teachers 37

Teacher motivation and incentives 41

Pre-service teacher preparation 45

Effective and appropriate pedagogy 49

Supporting in-service teachers 53

Curriculum & Materials 57

Language of instruction 59

Curriculum and expected learning outcomes 63

Textbooks and teachers’ guides 67

Supplementary learning and teaching materials 71

Information and communications technology (ICT) in education 75

Schools & Classrooms 81

School leadership and management 83

The physical school environment 87

The psycho-social school environment 89

Instructional time and classroom management 93

Formative assessment 97

Education System Management 99

Education sector analysis and strategic planning 101

Decentralisation of education management 105

Systems for accountability, supervision, and control 109

Large-scale and summative assessments 113

Financing education and addressing corruption 117

Epilogue 121

What works best to improve learning outcomes? 121

The theory behind the Improve Learning model

A review of eleven models of quality education

Catherine A Honeyman

Gain insight into the theory and research behind the 25 issues featured in the IIEP

Learning Portal’s Improve Learning model

The IIEP Learning Portal’s “Improve Learning” model focuses attention on five major components of the education system: learners and support structures, teachers and pedagogy, curriculum and materials, schools and classrooms, and education system management Within each of these components, we present research briefs on five major issues—giving education planners a basic overview of a total of 25 areas they may need to address in order to improve learning outcomes and attain high-quality education systems

The Improve Learning model conceives of these 25 areas as highly interconnected and mutually reinforcing, and the briefs often link to one another to illustrate this

Why did we choose to emphasize these 25 areas?

In developing the Improve Learning model, the IIEP Learning Portal reviewed ten models of quality education that have been influential in shaping research and practice over the past 15 years We also reviewed nine meta-analyses of impact evaluations on efforts to improve learning outcomes, and produced our own decision tree summarizing their conclusions A full list of references is provided at the end of this article

Each of these eleven models emphasizes a different set of factors to address in the effort to achieve quality education for all students (see Figure 1) Some are organized in the traditional categories of context, input, process and output Others emphasize the nested and interconnected nature of interventions, and the feedback loops that bind them together Many have extended narrative explanations to discuss the detailed decisions that must be made when working on a particular issue, and the contextual factors to take into account when deciding what to address, when, and how The Improve Learning model aims to address as comprehensively as possible all of the major factors identified by these different sources Our objective is to provide an introduction to the many issues that may prove to be relevant to education planners working in diverse education systems and contexts around the world This comprehensive overview, we hope, will in turn serve as a portal to the wealth of other detailed studies, policies, and initiatives that have been undertaken in each area

Which areas matter most?

Given that the Improve Learning model attempts to cover such a comprehensive array of issues, it is fair to ask which of these matters most In the face of financial and human resource constraints, it is simply not possible to address every issue at once—where should you focus your attentions first?

Fundamentally, the answer to this question depends on understanding your own context and diagnosing its needs The question of “what works best?” probably cannot be answered in a universal and uniform way—reviews of the existing evidence have produced contradictory conclusions, and specific implementation details and contextual factors have an enormous influence on the effects of

a given initiative The earliest model considered for this review, from the Improving Educational Quality Project, states: "The only certainty… is that educational reform is extremely complex, differing

Figure 1: Linking the Improve Learning model to other influential studies on education quality

radically among societies, within nations, and over time" (p 23) The UNESCO GEQAF and World Bank SABER models respond to this reality by presenting a set of analytical tools with guiding questions that can help education planners diagnose the major needs of their systems

Some of the models reviewed as background for the Improve Learning model, however, do stand out for their evidence-based efforts to focus attention on certain key factors The PISA series of reports

Strong performers and successful reformers in education uses assessment data and background

questionnaires to identify key factors of high-performing education systems The Hewlett Foundation

model Learning to improve learning analyses the outcomes of thirteen of its own programs to argue

for a focus on just a few aspects of classroom instruction, teacher training and supervision, and community engagement Our own decision tree illustrates how different specific interventions may

be useful, depending on the major obstacles currently faced in an education system (Portal, 2016)

And the McKinsey report How the world’s most improved school systems keep getting better offers a

very useful summary of the different clusters of interventions that have been successfully employed for improvement by education systems at each stage of learning achievement, allowing them to move from poor to fair, fair to good, good to great, and great to excellent (see Figure 2)

Figure 2: McKinsey, 2010 How the world's most improved school systems keep getting better

Supporting teachers in offering more effective instruction is a common element in all of these models But it is not the only factor to address Without an understanding of how to support learners’ basic cognitive, socio-emotional, and physical needs; without appropriate curriculum and learning materials; without a well-organized and stimulating school and classroom environment; and without effective overall system management—efforts to improve education quality and learning outcomes will not succeed We invite you to learn more about each of these areas to reach your own conclusions

about what to focus on and how

14_Learning%20to%20Improve%20Learning%20Synthesis%20for%20Publishing_Edited_0.pdf

3 PISA 2011-2014: Strong performers and successful reformers in Education: Lessons from PISA for Korea; Lessons from PISA for Mexico http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/strong-performers-and-successful- reformers-in-education_2220363x

4 GEQAF 2012: UNESCO-IBE 2012 General Education System Quality Analysis/Diagnosis Framework

7 EdQual 2010: Tikly, L 2010 Towards a framework for understanding the quality of education: EdQual Working Paper No 27 EdQual Research Programme Consortium

10 UNICEF 2000: Colby, J 2000 Defining Quality in Education UNESCO Working Paper

https://www.unicef.org/education/files/QualityEducation.PDF

11 IEQ 1999: IEQ 1999 Educational Quality Framework Improving Educational Quality (IEQ) Project

undertaken by American Institutes for Research for USAID

http://www.ieq.org/pdf/EducQualFramework.pdf

Learners & Support Structures

Basic pre-requisites for learning Early childhood education Diverse learning abilities and challenges Parental and community involvement in learning

Social inequities

Basic pre-requisites for learning

Matthew Waugh

Ensure that all students—at all ages—arrive at school ready to learn by attending

to the basic pre-requisites for learning: protecting children’s physical and

socio-emotional health, and ensuring that they have enough time to rest, study, and

play

To be ready to learn at all ages, students need healthy physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development, including opportunities for play and rest All of these aspects can be improved through access to a comprehensive school-based health programme, and by effectively assessing and

monitoring students’ physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional well-being

Issues and Discussion

Healthy physical development: Healthy physical development is essential for learning, including good overall health, adequate nutrition, and age-appropriate gross and fine motor skills such as the ability

to hold a writing tool.(5)(12) Nutritional deficiencies of mothers during pregnancy and in the diet of infants and young children affects present and future physical health of the child including vision, hearing, and brain development.(1)(14) Primary and secondary students who are malnourished or have inadequate access to nutritious food at school can experience poorer health, increased absences, compromised ability to learn from classroom instruction, and difficulties being involved in physical activities.(1)(8) Cost-effective strategies to improve the physical health and readiness to learn among children include school health programmes (see below) and educating caregivers about good nutrition, hygiene, and vaccination awareness, even for older child populations, through outreach and mobile campaigns.(4)

Socio-emotional development: Socio-emotional development is critical for students at all ages and

includes emotional expression and understanding, self-regulation, and the ability to positively interact with peers and adults.(5)(12) Children should have adequate rest and the right to play, which has the benefits of promoting socio-emotional development, enhancing positive life skills and identity development as well as building upon already acquired communication, negotiation, and leadership skills.(3)(12)(13) Play is not only a psychological and social necessity throughout children’s lives, it can also

be a tool for schools and communities to break down cultural, socio-economic, and gender divides.(3)(13) Insufficient rest and too much physical labour negatively affects memory and retention, deprives children from needed social interactions, and can take away from the homework and studying time that is necessary for students to be prepared to learn.(6)(9)(12) Free education, economic and food incentives, and interventions that reduce time for child labour can improve school enrolment, as well as time for play and rest.(3)(6)

School programmes: A variety of school-based programmes can improve learning by increasing access

to healthy nutritious food, promoting appropriate health and hygiene practices, directly providing health services, and assessing schools’ readiness to coordinate with various child-related

sectors.(4)(8)(14) Students can also be provided access to dental, vision, hearing, and physical health services (school vaccines, treatment for parasitic infections) At a minimum, school sites must have adequate sanitation facilities and access to safe drinking water.(10)(14) Benefits of school-based health programmes in primary and secondary schools include improved health, decrease in absences due to illness, improved classroom attendance and educational outcomes, and a decrease in behavioural issues that resulted in suspension or expulsion.(8) Short- and long-term improvements in student learning can be achieved when planners promote and ensure school health programmes that have a health education curriculum.(10)(14)

Inclusiveness and Equity

Readiness to learn for disadvantaged children: Disadvantaged students are likely to be living in poverty, to be faced with food or housing insecurity, and to have been exposed to violence or trauma, which can negatively affect their readiness to learn and lead to poorer socio-emotional development.(2)(6)(7)(8)(14) Interventions to improve learning readiness for children who are disadvantaged include mentoring and counselling activities, improved eating habits, activities involving parent-child interactions, and promotion of positive relationships.(2)(3)(6)(7)(8)(14) Providing disadvantaged children opportunities to co-operate and interact through peer and intergenerational play within a warm and welcoming school environment, can be useful in building self-esteem, and improving school adjustment and socio-emotional health, and can lead to better learning outcomes and readiness to learn for the long-term.(2)(3)(6)(7)(8)(14)

Physical and cognitive disabilities: A range of physical and cognitive disabilities can affect students’ readiness to learn in traditional schools Early diagnosis, appropriate treatment when possible, and special adaptations to pedagogy and the learning environment can help to ensure that all children have an opportunity to learn and develop.(15) For more information, see the article on diverse learning

abilities and challenges

References

1 Benton, D 2010 The influence of dietary status on the cognitive performance of children Molecular

Nutrition & Food Research 54(4), 457-470

2 Hahn, R A., Knopf, J., Wilson, S J., Truman, B I., Milstein, B., Johnson, R L.,…and Hunt, P C 2015 Programs to increase high school completion: A community guide systematic health equity review

American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 48(5), 599-608

3 Hirschland, D 2009 Addressing social, emotional, and behavioural challenges through play Zero to Three,

30, 12-17

4 Johri, M., Pérez, M C., Arsenault, C., Sharma, J., Sharma, J K., Pai, N P.,…and Sylvestre, M P 2015 Strategies to increase the demand for childhood vaccination in low- and middle income countries: A

systematic review and meta-analysis Bulletin of the World Health Organization 93(5), 339-346

5 Kids Count 2005 Getting Ready: Findings from the National School Readiness Indicators Initiative - A

17 State Partnership Kids Count Rhode Island: Providence

6 McCoy, D C., Connors, M C., Morris, P A., Yoshikawa, H., and Friedman-Krauss, A H 2015 Neighborhood economic disadvantage and children's cognitive and social emotional development: Exploring Head Start

classroom quality as a mediating mechanism Early Childhood Research Quarterly 32, 150-159

7 Merritt, D H., and Klein, S 2015 Do early care and education services improve language development for

maltreated children? Evidence from a national child welfare sample Child Abuse & Neglect 39, 185-196

8 Muthuswamy, E 2006 Feeding our future: The First and Second Year Evaluation Toronto District School

Board

11 UNICEF 2012 School Readiness: A Conceptual Framework United Nations Children’s Fund, New York:

UNICEF

12 UNICEF 2012 School Readiness and Transitions: A Companion to the Child Friendly Schools Manual

UNICEF

13 UNICEF 2004 Sport Recreation and Play http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/5571_SPORT_EN.pdf

14 WFP and UNICEF 2005 The Essential Package: Twelve Interventions to Improve the Health and Nutrition

of School-Age Children WFP and UNICEF: Rome

15 Wong, B., Graham, L., Hoskyn, M., and Berman, J (2008) The ABCs of Learning Disabilities (Second

Edition) Elsevier Academic Press: Burlington, MA

Early childhood education

Matthew Waugh

Implement a mix of centre- and home-based early childhood education programming that focuses on the holistic development of the child while

supporting parenting skills

Early childhood education (ECE) is an investment in the immediate health and well-being of young children and in their subsequent learning and development In making programming decisions, planners should be conscious of the long-term outcomes of ECE programmes, of widely-encouraged ECE practices, and of the different options of centre-based and community-based ECE programmes It

is also important to be aware of the need for resource-mobilization to fund ECE services, and the planning involved in coordinating, advocating, and monitoring ECE services

Issues and Discussion

Long-term outcomes of ECE programmes: Interventions for infants and very young children, including during pregnancy, provide the foundation for early childhood development during the formative years

of brain development and can significantly improve children’s short-term cognitive, behavioural, socio-emotional, physical, and motor development.(1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) Children aged 0-3 years who are enrolled

in ECE programmes have demonstrated cognitive, language, and social-emotional improvements in development while parenting skills and parent well-being also improved.(10) Positive effects are even greater if children receive a mixed-approach of home visits and centre-based instruction and if families are enrolled in ECE programmes that provide parenting support during pregnancy.(10)

Widely-encouraged ECE practices: Widely encouraged approaches to ECE programming focus on child and parent relationships, have gender-neutral curriculums, and incorporate stimulating activities that focus on literacy and providing parents with home instructional strategies.(1, 3, 4, 5, 9) Programmes that have greater outcomes for children and families tend to be longer in duration, greater intensity to build up children’s skills for primary school, and provide a mixed-approach including home-based and centre-based services.(1, 3, 4, 5, 9) Planners should develop training strategies that promote a continuum

of practitioner development, beginning with pre-service and continuing with ongoing in-service training that is maintained throughout the careers of ECE professionals.(3)

Centre-based ECE programmes: Quality centre-based ECE programmes—including pre-schools and day-care facilities that follow an educational curriculum—promote parental engagement, use programme activities to connect to the home environment, and help develop children’s habits, attitudes, and commitment to learning These characteristics prepare children to better receive teacher instruction in primary school.(1, 10) Formal day care initiatives like Catco Kids in Pakistan, promote basic pre-requisite needs of health, nutrition, good eyesight, social and emotional health, and self-esteem before the child enters formal school.(1, 9) Centre-based ECE programmes are generally more costly than community-based programmes due to costs associated with resourcing a physical space and providing ECE staff.(9) However, the benefits of ECE experience for children, including in the long-term lower rates of incarceration and welfare assistance, have been shown to far outweigh the costs.(1, 5, 7, 9, 10)

Community and home-based ECE programmes: Community-based ECE programmes may take several forms The international Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY) programme, for example, provides home visits and curriculum for parents and children to engage in together which can address the social and emotional needs of at-risk children during their early years.(1, 10) Although home visits can generally be more costly and time consuming for programme deliverers, this type of ECE relieves financial burden on the lives of low-income families who are unable to afford to send their children to centre-based facilities Building the capacity of parents and other volunteers to act

as facilitators can decrease the costs associated with this model.(9) Pratham Balwadi in India is an example of a different community-based model, which reduces costs by using existing community spaces such as temples, the teacher’s home, or the home of one of the children, to offer quality ECE services Effective community-based ECE, just like centre-based ECE, can lead to greater gains in cognitive and language development and higher lifetime income among low-income children compared to children without ECE experience.(1, 2, 5, 7, 10)

Resources mobilization to fund ECE services: Economic analyses of ECE investment have shown significantly greater positive long-term effects on the productivity and returns in later adulthood above and beyond other educational investments.(10) However, the immediate costs can seem daunting Comprehensive cost assessments have estimated that an average of US$11 billion annually from internal and external funding sources is needed for low-income countries to provide for all necessary educational resources from ECE to secondary schooling.(10) Spending per student in low-income countries should increase, on average, more than three times what is currently spent, with prioritization towards ECE.(4, 10) This financial need requires greater pooling of resources through coordinated cross-sector committees represented by education, health, family welfare, and other ECE-related services.(3) Requiring parents to make contributions to ECE services may be feasible for higher-income groups, but can shut out the disadvantaged children who most need ECE programming Planners should therefore develop other funding strategies to build a coalition of donors comprised

of community, local, national, NGOs, and private funding sources.(3, 10)

Action plans for coordinating, advocating, and monitoring ECE services: Because of the multi-sectoral nature of ECE interventions, high-level cross-sector committees require action plans that ensure ECE policies are carried out effectively and procedures are in place for coordination between agencies.(3, 10) Action plans should embed communication strategies that utilise media and public relations groups

to effectively promote and advocate on behalf of child development and education nationally.(3) High quality monitoring and evaluation activities can be carried out through evaluation departments and universities.(3)

Inclusiveness and Equity

Early detection of disabilities: Quality ECE is useful in promoting healthy development and providing early detection of disabilities in children, which can support educational professionals to deliver necessary and appropriate interventions Inclusion of children with disabilities in mainstream education has been challenging for many school systems around the world.(9) Earlier inclusion of children with disabilities to learn and play alongside their peers in mainstream ECE programmes promotes transitions into primary school, reduces stigma and isolation for the child and their parents, and has positive socio-emotional and academic benefits for students of all abilities.(9)

knowledge.(3, 8) To improve the access of minority parents to existing ECE and parental support and programmes, initiatives should be culturally-sensitive to parents’ child-rearing beliefs and practices.(3,

4, 8, 9)

References

1 Anderson, L M., Shinn, C., Fullilove, M T., Scrimshaw, S C., Fielding, J E., Normand, J., and Carande-Kulis,

V G 2003 The effectiveness of early childhood development programs: A systematic review American

Journal of Preventative Medicine, 24(3), 32-46

2 Blankenau, W., and Youderian, X 2015 Early childhood education expenditures and the intergenerational persistence of income Review of Economic Dynamics 18(2), 334-349

3 Garcia, M., Pence, A., Evans, J L 2008 Africa's Future, Africa's Challenge: Early Childhood Care and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Washington, DC: World Bank

4 Naudeau, S., Kataoka, N., Valerio, A., Neuman, M J., and Elder, L K 2011 Investing in Young Children: An Early Childhood Development Guide for Policy Dialogue and Project Preparation World Bank Publications, Washington D.C

5 Schweinhart, L J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W S., Belfield, C R., and Nores, M 2005 The High/Scope Perry Pre-school Study Through Age 40 High/Scope® Educational Research Foundation

6 Sripada, K 2012 Neuroscience in the capital: Linking brain research and federal early childhood programs and policies Early Education and Development 23(1), 120-130

7 Temple, J A., and Reynolds, A J 2007 Benefits and costs of investments in preschool education: Evidence from the child-parent centers and related programs Economics of Education Review, 26, 126-144

8 UNESCO 2012 Indigenous early childhood care and education (IECCE) curriculum framework for Africa: A focus on contexts and contents UNESCO/International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

9 UNESCO 2007 EFA global monitoring report: Strong foundations, early childhood care and education UNESCO: Paris, France

10 Vogel, C A., Yange, X., Moiduddin, E M., Kisker, E E., and Carlson, B L 2010 Early Head Start Children in Grade 5: Long-Term Follow-Up of the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Study Sample OPRE Report # 2011-8, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for

Children and Families, U.S Department of Health and Human Services

Diverse learning abilities and challenges

Matthew Waugh

Support school professionals to teach to the diverse

cognitive abilities of all students.

It is important for educators and education planners at all levels to understand students’ diverse cognitive abilities and challenges Teachers need to be competent in addressing particular types of learning challenges while encouraging the growth of high ability learners It is also important to consider the learning impacts of mainstreaming and grouping students based on abilities, and the implications that theories of learning have for assessment

Issues and Discussion

Multiple intelligences, learning styles, or range of abilities: Although there is limited evidence to theories of multiple intelligences or learning styles, there is a range of cognitive abilities that can result

in students excelling in one or more content areas relative to others.(8, 11) This includes learner’s strengths to use words and language, logic and reasoning, spatial relationships, sounds and rhythms, body movements and coordination, naturalistic observation, and inter and intra-personal skills.(8, 12)

Narrowly matching teaching instruction with students’ preferred learning style may not lead to improved academic outcomes, but students benefit when schools and teachers understand and prepare for diverse capacities to learn the curriculum, as well as differences in motivation to learn one content area compared to another.(9, 13)

Understanding and addressing learning challenges: Learning challenges involve any impairments in physical, cognitive, language, and behavioural development that affect one’s ability to learn.(1, 2, 8, 9, 13)

Particular challenges include intellectual disabilities, learning disabilities, visual impairments, speech and hearing disorders, Cerebral Palsy, autistic spectrum disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and epilepsy among others.(1, 2, 8, 9, 11, 13) The umbrella term “intellectual disability” implies generalized difficulties with understanding, reasoning, and other features of general intelligence However, many other learning challenges may actually mask an otherwise average or even above-average mental capacity Educators and family members who are unaware of the specific issues involved in different learning challenges, may mistakenly assume that children and youth who are affected by them are unable to learn—yet this is not the case

Educational planners can include these learners by adopting a universal design for learning with resources, services, and features of the physical school environment that are usable by all students,

to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialised design.(1, 12) Teachers can also teach students specific strategies for working around their learning disabilities, and can address the needs of students with behavioural challenges through the use of meta-cognitive strategies and self-regulation activities.(5)

High ability and twice-exceptional students: High ability learners, also known as gifted students, demonstrate superior performance or talents in any number of intelligences, whereas students who are twice-exceptional demonstrate giftedness in one or more areas addition to a diagnosed learning

challenge.(3, 4) In cases of twice-exceptionality, sometimes only the learning challenge is noted, or neither the talents nor disabilities are identified because they mask each other It is therefore important that students with learning challenges as well as high abilities be encouraged through strength-based approaches that centre around student’s creativity, problem-solving skills, and analytic abilities.(3, 4) Growth for gifted students can be encouraged when the curriculum is individualized and flexible to those subjects students excel in, and when the environment allows for self-direction, collaboration and group discussions, problem solving, self-evaluation, and inquiry-based activities.(3, 4)

Mainstreaming versus ability grouping: Educators must address the question of whether learners with particular abilities or challenges should be mainstreamed along with all other students, or whether they should be grouped apart in order to provide specialized learning opportunities Students with learning challenges who are taught in the mainstream classroom alongside same-aged peers without learning challenges do better academically and socially than those students who spend most of their instructional hours in separate or specialized classrooms.(1) Teachers can improve their approaches to teaching students with low abilities and learning challenges through professional development training, actively involving student’s families, focusing on student’s strengths no matter the ability level, and making curriculum adaptations when necessary.(1)

On the other hand, accelerated learning opportunities have many academic benefits for gifted and twice-exceptional students Such opportunities may include being placed in advanced courses, being mentored by content experts to extend on the student’s knowledge, having access to out-of-school programs that support growth in their gifted areas, and through ability grouping and grade skipping.(3, 4) Peer ability grouping has significant academic benefits for gifted students; however, there is a potential for negative social or emotional impacts, especially for twice-exceptional students.(3) Schools should not restrict the ability for students to accelerate their learning, but students’ social and emotional development should be assessed if they are to be grouped with older students.(3)

Implications for assessment: While there is diversity in student learning capabilities, there remains inadequate empirical support for assessments of multiple intelligences and learning styles.(8, 12) Rather than individualizing instruction and assessment for every single child which may be impractical and costly for many schools, teachers should instead focus on diversified teaching and assessment practices shown to be effective for students with diverse learning abilities while providing individualized attention when necessary.(8) Effective strategies include formative assessment methods, direct instruction, feedback on performance, embedded instruction, cooperative learning, and developing an educational framework that reflects an inclusive school pedagogy.(1, 8)

Inclusiveness and Equity

Learning disability as a hidden disability: The total population of children with learning disabilities is unknown largely due to the hidden nature of the disability.(13) Because more severe disabilities tend

to take priority and children with learning disabilities are not often part of the identification system, their difficulties may go unacknowledged Educational planners can emphasize the need for government and school policies that include students with learning challenges and disabilities as a target group for academic intervention and support.(13) Government policies can improve the understanding and visibility of learning disabilities through explicit targeting initiatives to identify,

Assistive technology for low-income schools: Educational planners should develop school guidelines for technology in schools that outline the acquisition, integration, maintenance, and expansion of low-cost technologies in schools for students with an array of learning abilities.(1, 5, 13) Low-cost assistive technology can be integrated into the school environment, including providing carbon copies of notes for students with writing difficulties, color overlays for students with reading and/or visual-perception challenges, and communication boards or keychains with simple response messages for students with speech/language challenges (1, 5, 13) Utensil grips and slant boards not only benefit students with writing challenges but are also beneficial for all students (1, 5, 13)

References

1 Alquraini, T., and Gut, D 2012 Critical components of successful inclusion of students with severe

disabilities: Literature review International Journal of Special Education, 27, 42-59

2 Boyle, C A., Boulet, S., Schieve, L., Cohen, R A., Blumberg, S.J., Yeargin-Allsopp M., Visser, S., and Kogan,

M.D 2011 Trends in the prevalence of developmental disabilities in US children, 1997-2008 Pediatrics,

27, 1034-1042

3 Colangelo, N., Assouline, S., Lohman, D., and Marron, M A 2010 Proceedings of the 2008 Wallace

Symposium Poster Session on Academic Acceleration Iowa City, IA: The University of Iowa

4 Foley-Nicpon, M., Allmon, A., Sieck, B., and Stinson, R D 2011 Empirical investigation of

twice-exceptionality: Where have we been and where are we going? Gifted Child Quarterly, 55, 3-17

5 National Forum on Education Statistics 2002 Technology in Schools Suggestions, Tools and Guidelines for

Assessing Technology in Elementary and Secondary Education U.S Department of Education National

Center for Education Statistics: Washington, D.C

6 Knight, K H., Porcellato, L., and Tume, L 2014 Out-of-school lives of physically disabled children and

young people in the United Kingdom: A qualitative literature review Journal of Child Health Care 18(3),

275-285

7 Neihart, M 2007 The socioaffective impact of acceleration and ability grouping: Recommendations for

best practice Gifted Child Quarterly, 51(4), 330-341

8 Paschler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., and Bjork, R 2010 Learning styles: Concepts and evidence

Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9, 105-119

9 Peters, S 2007 “Education for all?”: A historical analysis of international inclusive education policy and

individuals with disabilities Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 18, 98-108

10 Robinson, A., and Stein, M K (2013) Evidence-based practice model and response to intervention for

students with gifts and talents In M R Coleman & S K Johnsen (Eds.), Implementing RtI with gifted

students: Service models, trends and issues (pp 229–252) Waco, TX: Prufrock Press

11 Shakespeare, T., and Officer, A 2011 World Report on Disability World Health Organization

12 Tirri, K., and Nokelainen, P 2011 Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education Sense Publishers: Rotterdam

13 UNESCO 2009 Towards Inclusive Education for Children with Disabilities: A Guideline Bangkok: UNESCO

Parental and community involvement in

learning

Matthew Waugh

Involve parents in promoting, encouraging, and enriching their child’s learning

Parental support includes direct effects on learning before and during formal education, as well as monitoring and facilitating factors that are indirectly linked, such as nutrition, behaviours, health, and hygiene Several factors are important for understanding these types of parental support including: support needed pre- and post-birth for healthy infant development, support needed during children’s early years and prior to entering formal schooling, support needed during primary and secondary school years, school strategies for involving parents in their child’s education, and costs associated with parent education programmes

Issues and Discussion

Parental support for children 0 to 2: Parent support to learning during the infant and toddler years takes place mostly in the home and includes interacting with and attending to the needs of infants, continuous expressions of affection, and engaging in two-way talk by listening and responding positively to encourage vocabulary expansion and develop language skills.(9) Programmes that improve parents’ confidence and capacity to enrich their children’s early life experiences can have positive effects on children’s cognitive, socio-emotional, and linguistic development.(1, 2, 9) Many effective interventions are feasible even in poorly-resourced communities, such as Kangaroo Mother Care which is designed to enhance pre-mature infant care through skin-to-skin contact,(3) and public information campaigns on parenting that use accessible media such as radio

Parental support for children 3-5: Parent support to learning during the pre-schools years requires maintaining the activities above, but now with a supplement on developing school-readiness, such as

by exposing children to emergent literacy and numeracy.(1, 3, 9) Similar to the activities offered through Pupa, a Brasilian teacher training programme for low-income parents of children under the age of 6, parents should stimulate an interest in learning through storytelling, role-playing, and music.(2, 3, 9)

Children benefit when parents help them participate in community activities that have educational value including attending a cultural event; visiting libraries and museums; encouraging observation and learning from everyday settings; and learning through play.(2, 3, 9)

Parental support for children 6 -11: Parent support to learning during the primary school years includes the above activities while supporting children’s transition to school.(1, 3, 4) The parental support needed during the primary school years is characterized by greater direct support to their child’s education including assistance with their homework and volunteering in classrooms and with school functions.(1, 3, 4) Many parents feel they are able to assist their child with school-related work during the primary years However, some parents—especially those with lower education levels themselves—may need help understanding the importance of their support and learning how to assist their children; programmes like Literacy Boost offered to out-of-school children in Malawi can promote family involvement in early literacy activities.(1, 3)

Parental support for children 12-18: Parent support to learning during the secondary school years can have positive educational outcomes when parents encourage, supervise, and motivate their child within a stable home environment.(1, 3, 4) Parental support becomes more indirect as their child takes greater responsibility over their learning, and many parents feel less capable of assisting with their child’s homework as the curriculum becomes more advanced.(1, 3, 4) By providing workshops and training to parents, such as initiatives like the Community Education Support Project, parental support and efficacy to participate in their child’s education can improve.(3)

Delivering parenting programmes to parents of young children: Reaching parents to facilitate and share skills and knowledge about parenting and support to learning can include one-to-one programming, parent groups, and the use of media.(2) Programmes provided should be delivered either through intensive one-to-one home visits and parenting groups sustained over a period of a year or through less-intensive but regularly scheduled interventions that span two to three years.(1, 2, 9) The use of media can be an important tool for reaching low-income, rural, or isolated families.(2)

Parent programmes like Programa de Padres y Hijos in Chile, that are designed to promote the

psychosocial development of children 0 to 6 in low-income communities can result in positive term outcomes.(1, 2) Programa de Padres y Hijos combines weekly worker-facilitated parent meetings

long-that coincide with a radio broadcast long-that uses radio dramas and activities to stimulate conversations and develop parent activities that can stimulate child-parent interactions during the week.(1, 2)

Whether conducted in conjunction with formal early childhood education programmes or apart, programming should focus on child-parent interactions and promote whole-child development—including parenting skills and knowledge to ensure proper child nutrition, health, and hygiene.(1, 2, 9)

Communicating to improve parental involvement in schooling: Communication between teachers and parents can be facilitated through home/school link programmes Such programmes may be implemented by special school staff who are responsible for connecting families with schools, building relationships, encouraging school attendance, and linking the curriculum in the home with school instruction.(1, 9) Policies can help to ensure regular communication when descriptions of parents’ responsibilities are developed with and articulated to parents, and when networks between parents are established.(3, 7, 9) Teachers plan lessons that involve parents in the assignment, in addition to applying other tips and resources to improve parental involvement.(1) School staff can arrange to meet families at their home or in the community, or use technology to maintain contact including email, phone calls, school portals and district websites, teacher blogs, phone apps, sending letters home with students, and administering school surveys to determine how parents wish to communicate.(3, 6) Multi-sector coordination and costs of comprehensive parent programmes: Education planners may need to work through multi-stakeholder teams to improve parental involvement, since parent programmes and services are often spread across several sectors including education, health, and family welfare.(2) Costs for delivering parenting education varies globally and depends on the programme model, duration, and type of skills and training being offered.(2) Centre-based programmes and one-to-one models within home visiting programmes are more costly due to staff training, salaries, and turnover so such programmes may need to transition towards more sustainable models, including the use of parent and other volunteers to extend programme reach.(2)

Inclusiveness and Equity

education.(5) Lack of diversity in parental involvement programs or policies and leadership can also lead to a limited presence of parents of ethnic and racial minority in schools.(5) These barriers can be addressed through targeted interventions that: provide specific information regarding how parents can be more involved, are designed to develop healthy parent-school relationships, use interpreters when necessary, build mutual trust, and integrate parental support into the curriculum.(3, 5, 7)

References

1 Desforges, C., and Abouchaar, A 2003 The impact of parental involvement, parental support and family education on pupil achievements and adjustment: A literature review Research Report, 443, London: Department for Education and Skills Nottingham: UK

2 Evans, J L Parenting programmes: An important ECD intervention strategy Education for All Global Monitoring Report, 2007 UNESCO

3 Goodall, J., and Vorhaus, J 2011 Review of best practice in parental engagement Research Report, 156 Department for Education and Skills Nottingham: UK

4 Hill, N E., and Tyson, D F 2009 Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 740-763

5 Kim, Y (2009) Minority parental involvement and school barriers: Moving the focus away from

deficiencies of parents Educational Research Review, 4, 80-102

6 McConnell, B M., and Kubina Jr., R M 2014 Connecting with families to improve students' school

attendance: A review of the literature Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 58(4), 249-256

7 Mendez, J L 2010 How can parents get involved in preschool? Barriers and engagement in education by ethnic minority parents of children attending head start Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 16(1), 26-36

8 Mingat, A and A Seurat 2011a “Développement des enfants de 0 à 6 ans et pratiques parentales à Madagascar” UNICEF New York

9 Redding, S 2000 Parents and Learning International Academy of Education and the International Bureau

of Education Geneva, Switzerland

Social inequities

Matthew Waugh

Coordinate with other social services in order to help resolve the socio-economic

inequities that contribute to lower learning outcomes for disadvantaged children

Social inequities are rooted in the economic and social conditions in which children learn and grow, and early life experiences have particularly important and long-lasting effects on children’s development and educational outcomes The first 1,000 days, from conception to age two, have been found to be of particular significance, requiring an emotionally nurturing environment, where children are protected from exposure to physical and psychological harm, and where they receive cognitive stimulation It is important for educational planners to understand how social inequities influence learning outcomes, and pursue effective programmes through multi-stakeholder collaborations to address inequities

Issues and Discussion

Social inequities influence learning outcomes: Social inequities play a formative role in children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development.(6)(8)(11) Compared to children from higher-income neighbourhoods, children who are poor and live in low-resourced communities experience greater vulnerabilities and exclusion from society, have heightened exposure to violence and toxic stress, are attending schools that receive less funding, are more likely to be malnourished, have absent parents and are at-risk for other factors that lead to poor outcomes.(6)(8)(11)(12) Social inequities are cumulative, whereby advantage can accumulate while disadvantage is often compounded by further disadvantage and thereby widening the inequities between children of advantage and disadvantage over time.(3)(8)(11) Inequities can be addressed and learning outcomes improved when governments ensure that the most disadvantaged children and their families have access to quality health- and education-related services in the formative years of development.(6)(8)(11)

Addressing inequities that begin before birth: Prenatal development and postnatal care is critical for children’s long-term development and can be an important intervention in addressing social inequities.(4)(13) Adequate antenatal, labour and delivery, and post-delivery services such as nurse-family partnership programmes should be offered to parents to improve home quality for children to grow and develop in safe environments.(4)(13) Having access to health care centres, and to home visits

by health care workers who can provide screening and assessment services, can reduce complications, contribute to healthy child development, and address social inequities.(4)(13)

Multi-stakeholder collaboration to address inequities: Socio-economic inequities affect learning in a broad way, and can only be sustainably addressed through interventions in multiple sectors and areas

of policy Planners thus need to coordinate multi-stakeholder partnerships to develop and deliver targeted programmes that address the full range of issues affecting disadvantaged children and families.(3)(4) Some examples of relevant stakeholders include health and social services agencies, infrastructure and environmental planners, educational institutions, religious and cultural groups, and families and children themselves Multi-stakeholder partnerships are effective when stakeholders assess children’s needs and develop community indicators.(3)(4) Each stakeholder needs to buy-in and

own project phases with a clear focus on impacts and sustainability with regulations and accountability measures in place.(3)(4) The multi-stakeholder team should also adopt a monitoring and evaluation system using valid and reliable tools to measure inequities (agreed upon indicators) so that changes

in disparities can be measured over time.(3)(4)

Effective programmes in addressing inequities: Highly effective programmes that are specifically designed for disadvantaged children and families and are also integrated within family support, health, nutrition, and education systems have led to improvements in children’s nutrition and physical development, as well as receptive language skills, motor and cognitive development.(4)(5)(12)(13) Effective strategies for addressing social inequities include reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health interventions, high quality early childhood care and development programmes, cash transfer and food for education programmes, supplemental programs that enhance parental support to education, and broader interventions to improve family livelihoods and other such factors.(4)(5)(13) Some “big push” interventions have resulted in sustainable transitions to self-employment and greater standards of living for significantly disadvantaged populations.(1) Cash transfer programmes can include conditions that parents ensure their children attend school and regularly schedule their child for health visits.(5)(13)

However, programmes like cash transfers can vary in success due to contextual barriers such as ineffective disbursement and use of funds, poor school infrastructure, and class-size issues.(12)

Planners should ensure that mechanisms for accountability and transparency are built into based management systems to better use and disburse funds.(12)

school-Programme spending to address social inequities: Increased spending to combat social inequities that focus on early childhood rather than later in the child’s life course can lead to significant future financial returns, improved economic and labour productivity, and a reduction in health care costs due

to improved mental and physical development.(4)(8)(13) To address inequities, an assessment of current and future allocation of funding for educational programmes should be made to determine whether there is a higher concentration of resources for one age cohort (early childhood) over another (middle childhood) and to ensure that spending is addressing needs where it is needed most.(2)(12) Both current and future benefits should be included in calculations of the cost-effectiveness of programmes such

as early childhood education.(4)(12) Higher funding tends to lead to greater benefits but spending should

be sustainable to the extent that programmes lead to a re-shaping of the living conditions and improved outcomes of disadvantaged children and their families regardless of their ability to pay for services.(2)(4)(8)(11)(12)

Inclusiveness and Equity

Gender and other cross-cutting inequities: Disadvantaged groups are not always defined by cultural, economic, or geographical boundaries For example, girls may be disadvantaged in ways that cut across regional divides and socio-economic class.Investing in education for girls empowers and gives girls the confidence to take charge of their lives and make decisions about their future, their careers, marriage, and child bearing.(11) Education for girls also creates economic growth, reduces the possibility of conflict and improves the lives of future generations.(11) (12)(13) When considering the impact of social inequities on learning outcomes, planners need to investigate what other cross-cutting social issues—including gender, but also different forms of disability, and other context-dependent factors—may need to be addressed

References

1 Abhijit, B., Duflo, E., Goldberg, N., Karlan, D., Osei, R., Parienté, W.,…and Udry, C 2015 A multi-faceted

program causes lasting progress for the very poor: Evidence from six countries Science 348 (6236)

2 Britto, P R., Yoshikawa, H., Van Ravens, J., Ponguta, L A., Oh, S S., Dimaya, R and Seder, R C 2013

Understanding Governance of Early Childhood Development and Education Systems and Services in

Low-Income Countries Innocenti Working Paper No.2013-07, UNICEF Office of Research: Florence

3 Draxler, A 2008 New partnerships for EFA: building on experience Paris: IIEP-UNESCO/World Economic

Forum

4 Engle, P L., Black, M M., Behrman, J.R., Cabral de Mello, M., Gertler, P J., Kapiriri, L.,… and Young, M E

2007 Strategies to avoid the loss of developmental potential in more than 200 million children in the

developing world Lancet, 369(9557), 229-242

5 Fernald, L C., Gertler, P J., and Neufeld, L M 2008 Role of cash in conditional cash transfer programmes

for child health, growth, and development: An analysis of Mexico’s Oportunidades Lancet, 371(9615),

828-837

6 Grantham-McGregor, S., Cheung, Y B., Cueto, S., Glewwe, P., Richter, L., and Strupp, B 2007

Developmental potential in the first 5 years for children in developing countries Lancet, 369(9555), 60-70

7 Grayson, H 2013 Rapid review of parental engagement and narrowing the gap in attainment for

disadvantaged children Slough and Oxford: NFER and Oxford University Press

8 Hertzman, C, Siddiqi, A., Hertzman, E., Irwin, L G., Vaghri, Z., Houweling, T A., … and Marmot, M 2010

Bucking inequality gradient through early child development British Medical Journal, 340, 468

9 Lee, F L M., Yeung, A S., Tracey, D., and Barker, K 2015 Inclusion of children with special needs in early

childhood education: What teacher characteristics matter Topics in Early Childhood Special Education

35(2), 79-88

10 Peters, S 2007 “Education for all?” A historical analysis of international inclusive education policy and

individuals with disabilities Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 18, 98-108

11 Shonkoff, J P., Garner, A S., Siegel, B S., Dobbins, M I., Earls, M F., McGuinn, L., and Wood, D L 2012

The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress Pediatrics, 129(1), e232-e246

12 UNICEF 2015 The Investment case for education and equity UNICEF: New York

13 UNICEF 2008 Maternal and Newborn Health United Nations Children’s Fund: New York

Teachers & Pedagogy

Recruiting and deploying effective teachers

Teacher motivation and incentives Pre-service teacher preparation Effective and appropriate pedagogy Supporting in-service teachers

Recruiting and deploying effective teachers

Matthew A.M Thomas

Recruit enough strong teacher candidates into the profession and deploy them

equitably throughout the education system

Education systems need effective teachers at all levels in order to ensure students learn as much as possible It is important to recruit an adequate number of highly effective teachers into the profession and strategically deploy them throughout the country

Issues and Discussion:

Predicting the Number of Teachers Needed: Knowing how many teachers are needed in a system is crucial to advancing its success Predicting the number of teachers is based on estimated demand for schooling, considering the school-age population, gross enrolment rate, and average pupil-teacher ratio.(10) It is then necessary to estimate the number of new teachers needed as a result of additional positions and teacher attrition, including both private and public schools.(10, 15) A rough estimation for

a system with six years of primary school is 3,400 to 4,700 teachers per million of total population.(10)

However, projections for secondary school are less consistent because they depend on the specialisations of teachers and specific requirements of the education system.(10)

Barriers to Recruiting Teachers: Demand for education has created a teacher shortage in many countries, and some policies place additional barriers to recruiting enough teachers For example, high costs to be trained as a teacher and low teacher salaries can discourage strong candidates.(11)

Moreover, overly strict qualification for applicants can reduce teacher supply A third issue concerns the low status of teaching as a profession and the limited degree of autonomy teachers possess.(12)

The shortage of teachers is also closely related to teacher attrition These and other factors vary considerably by national and local contexts

Attracting Effective Teachers: Teacher quality is one of the most important factors related to student performance, but there is debate about predicting which teachers will be skilled and effective Teaching credentials and qualifications alone have not been correlated with teacher quality.(6) Some research suggests that teachers with higher cognitive abilities and scores produce higher learning outcomes among students.(9) Other factors include teachers’ content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge, or ability to teach a specific subject Improving teaching conditions (e.g., higher salaries, more planning time, lower pupil/teacher ratio) can also help recruit and retain quality teachers.(2) Also see the article on teacher motivation and status

Alternative Routes to Teaching: A wide variety of alternative programmes exist in many countries for attracting teacher candidates, but have yielded mixed results.(13) Paraprofessional contract teachers, who may have minimal training, are common in many countries as a means to fill a teacher shortage, but this approach has received mixed results and is not a viable long-term option.(3, 10) In general contract teachers are most effective when they receive support and careful monitoring, in addition to their initial training.(11) It may also be beneficial to create alternative routes for untrained teachers to become trained and fully qualified.(13) As secondary education continues to grow around the world,

there will likely be high demand for secondary teachers, especially in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects Therefore, alternative approaches may be useful in attracting STEM teachers who have industry experience outside of teaching.(10) However, these teachers may be particularly difficult to retain for more than a few years

Teacher Deployment Systems: Teachers in all countries must be hired and placed or deployed in schools Teacher deployment processes vary widely across contexts because some systems make deployment decisions centrally, others regionally, and others by school.(11) However, all systems benefit from careful tracking and planning of teacher deployment In many developing countries, the teacher deployment system is weak and teachers are reluctant to teach in rural locations because they face more challenges than in urban contexts.(15) Policies may therefore mandate or encourage (through such means as additional salary, free housing, and free transport) teachers to teach in undesirable locations Both approaches have been successful in some contexts but not in others.(11)

Regardless of the system, it is important to have experienced and strong teachers evenly distributed across all schools to ensure all students have good teachers Because beginning teachers often lack teaching skills and also struggle most in isolated locations, more experienced teachers may do better

in these locations if they can be convinced to stay.(7)

Approaches to Equitable Teacher Deployment: A number of approaches can be used to ensure equitable teacher deployment Pre-service programs can ensure trainee teachers are adequately prepared to teach in under-resourced and isolated posts through special modules about teaching in these locations.(14) Posting teachers to schools in their home region may increase their success and ultimate likelihood to stay in that school because they know the local culture and, in some cases, the language; though this is not always effective.(17) System management strategies that improve working conditions in rural locations may encourage teachers to accept and remain in undesirable posts For example, using mobile phones for payment systems rather than requiring teachers to come to urban centres to collect salaries can reduce the challenges of rural locations.(3) Finally, the best approaches

to teacher deployment are systematic A comprehensive and consistent approach has the most potential to improve teacher deployment.(15)

Inclusiveness and Equity

Disadvantaged schools: Schools with disadvantaged student populations are most in need of skilled teachers; yet they are also often the least desirable teaching posts Efforts to improve the motivation and status of teachers may be particularly important in these contexts

highly-Gender: In many contexts it is necessary to consider gender in the recruitment and deployment of teachers.(1) For both cultural and safety reasons female teachers may be unwilling to accept rural teaching posts or may desire to transfer as quickly as possible.(14, 16) The lack of female teachers in rural schools has the potential to influence both the enrolment and academic achievement of girls in those schools.(11, 16)

Teachers with Disabilities: Many countries now have policies about inclusive education Yet, there is little consideration for empowering teachers with disabilities, who can serve as powerful role models for their students

References

2 Bennell, P., & Akyeampong, K 2007 Teacher motivation in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (No 71)

London: DfID

3 Bramwell, D., Anderson, S., & Mundy, K 2014 Teachers and teacher development: A rapid review of the

literature Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education

4 Dai, C., Sindelar, P T., Denslow, D., Dewey, J., & Rosenberg, M S (2007) Economic analysis and the design

of alternative-route teacher education programs Journal of Teacher Education, 58(5), 422-439

5 Fyfe, A 2007 The use of contract teachers in developing countries: Trends and impacts Geneva:

International Labour Organization

6 Hanushek, E The economic value of higher teacher quality Working Paper No 56 Stanford: National

Centre for the Analysis of of Longitudinal Data in Educational Research

7 Hedges, J 2002 ‘The importance of posting and interaction with the education bureaucracy in becoming a

teacher in Ghana’ International Journal of Educational Development, 22(3), 353-366

8 Kang, N., & Hong, M 2008 ‘Achieving excellence in teacher workforce and equity in learning

opportunities in South Korea’ Educational Researcher, 37(4)

9 Meroni, E., Vera-Toscano, E., Costa, P 2015 ‘Can low skill teachers make good students? Empirical

evidence from PIAAC and PISA’ Journal of Policy Modeling, 37, 308-323

10 Mulkeen, A 2010 Teachers in Anglophone Africa: Issues in teacher supply, training, and management

Washington: World Bank Publications

11 Mulkeen, A., Chapman, D., DeJaeghere, J., & Leu, E 2007 Recruiting, retaining, and retraining secondary

school teachers and principals in Sub-Saharan Africa World Bank Working Paper No 99 Secondary

Education in Africa (SEIA), Africa Region Human Development Department.W Washington DC: World Bank

12 OECD 2005 Teachers Matter: Attracting, Developing, and Retaining Effective Teachers Paris: OECD

13 OECD 2011 Building a high-quality teaching profession: Lessons from around the world Paris: OECD

14 Thomas, M.A.M., Thomas, C., & Lefebvre, E 2014 ‘Dissecting the teacher monolith: Experiences of

beginning basic school teachers in Zambia’ International Journal of Educational Development, 38, 37-46

15 UNESCO 2010 Methodological Guide for the Analysis of Teacher Issues Teacher Training Initiative for Sub-Saharan Africa (TISSA) Teacher Policy Development Guide Paris: UNESCO

16 UNESCO 2014 Teaching and learning: Achieving quality for all Education for all global monitoring report 2013/4 Paris: UNESCO

17 UNCESO 2015 Education for All 2000-2015: Achievements and challenges Paris: UNESCO