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Trang 1ACCA
Paper P4
Advanced financial management
Essential text
Trang 2British library cataloguinginpublication data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Published by:
Kaplan Publishing UK Unit 2 The Business Centre Molly Millars Lane
Wokingham Berkshire RG41 2QZ
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of Kaplan Publishing.
Trang 6in the study process. They include:
The sections on the study guide, the syllabus objectives, the examination and study skills should all be read before you commence your studies. They are designed to familiarise you with the nature and content of the examination and give you tips on how to best to approach your learning
The complete text or essential text comprises the main learning materials and gives guidance as to the importance
of topics and where other related resources can be found.
Each chapter includes:
(1) Detailed study guide and syllabus objectives(2) Description of the examination
(3) Study skills and revision guidance(4) Complete text or essential text(5) Question practice
• The learning objectives contained in each chapter, which have been carefully mapped to the examining body's own syllabus learning objectives or outcomes.
You should use these to check you have a clear understanding of all the topics on which you might be assessed in the examination
• The chapter diagram provides a visual reference for the content in the chapter, giving an overview of the topics and how they link together
• The content for each topic area commences with a brief explanation or definition to put the topic into context before covering the topic in detail. You should follow your studying of the content with a review of the illustration/s. These are worked examples which will help you to understand better how to apply the content for the topic
Trang 7• Summary diagrams complete each chapter to show
the important links between topics and the overall content of the paper. These diagrams should be used to check that you have covered and understood the core topics before moving on
Trang 8Study skills and revision guidance
Preparing to study Effective studyingFurther reading You can find further reading and technical articles under the student section of ACCA's website
Trang 9KAPLAN PUBLISHING ix
Formulae and tables
Modigliani and Miller Proposition 2 (with tax)
ke = kie + (1 − T)(kie − kd)
e
d
VV
Two asset portfolio
sp = 2 a b ab a b
b
2 b
2 a
2
as w s 2w w r s s
w + +The Capital Asset Pricing Model E(ri) = Rf + βi(E(rm) − Rf) The asset beta formula
−+
d e
d e
e
))T1(VV
)T1(V))
T1(VV(
V
β β
The Growth Model
)gr
)g1(DP
g = bre
The weighted average cost of capital
)T1(kVV
Vk
VV
V
d e
d e
d e
=The Fisher formula (1+i) = (1+r)(1+h) Purchasing power parity and interest rate parity
)h1(
)h1(xSs
b
c o
)i1(xsf
b
c o
0
++
=
Trang 10c = PaN(d1) – PeN(d2)e−rt
Where:
ts
ts5.0r)P
a
1
++
Ts
2/Ts)X/F(nd
2 0
1
+
=and
Tsd
d2 = 1−The Put Call Parity relationship
p = c − Pa + Pee−rt
Trang 11KAPLAN PUBLISHING xi
Present value of 1, i.e (1 + r) −n
Where r = discount rate
n = number of periods until payment
Discount rate (r) Periods
Trang 12Present value of an annuity of 1, i.e
r
r −n
+
−(1 )1
Where r = discount rate
n = number of periods until payment
Discount rate (r) Periods
Trang 13KAPLAN PUBLISHING xiii
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.0
.0080 0478 0871 1255 1628
.0120 0517 0910 1293 1664
.0160 0557 0948 1331 1700
.0199 0596 0987 1368 1736
.0239 0636 1026 1406 1772
.0279 0675 1064 1443 1808
.0319 0714 1103 1480 1844
.0359 0753 1141 1517 1879
.1985 2324 2642 2939 3212
.2019 2357 2673 2967 3238
.2054 2389 2703 2995 3264
.2088 2422 2734 3023 3289
.2123 2454 2764 3051 3315
.2157 2486 2794 3078 3340
.2190 2517 2823 3106 3365
.2224 2549 2852 3133 3389
.3461 3686 3888 4066 4222
.3485 3708 3907 4082 4236
.3508 3729 3925
4099 4251
.3531 3749 3944 4115 4265
.3554 3770 3962 4131 4279
.3577 3790 3980 4147 4292
.3599 3810 3997 4162 4306
.3621 3830 4015 4177 4319
.4357 4474 4573 4656 4726
.4370 4484 4582 4664 4732
.4382 4495 4591 4671 4738
.4394 4505 4599 4678 4744
.4406 4515 4608 4686 4750
.4418 4525 4616 4693 4756
.4430 4535 4625 4699 4761
.4441 4545 4633 4706 4767
.4783 4830 4868 4898 4922
.4788 4834 4871 4901 4925
.4793 4838 4875 4904 4927
.4798 4842 4878 4906 4929
.4803 4846 4881 4909 4931
.4808 4850 4884 4911 4932
.4812 4854 4887 4913 4934
.4817 4857 4890 4916 4936
.4941 4956 4967 4976 4982
.4943 4957 4968 4977 4983
.4945 4959 4969 4977 4984
.4946 4960 4970 4978 4984
.4948 4961 4971 4979 4985
.4949 4962 4972 4980 4985
.4951
4963 4973 4980 4986
.4952 4964 4974 4981 4986
relevant number above from 0.5
Trang 15– the separation of ownership and control– transaction cost theory
– agency theory
• explain the ways in which the behaviour of those charged with corporate governance may give rise to a conflict of interest with stakeholders
• identify the potential conflicts between stakeholders and those charged with corporate governance in a specific scenario
• identify, explain and recommend the alternative approaches that may be adopted to resolve the conflicts of interests between those charged with governance and stakeholders
• describe, compare and contrast the emerging governance structures and policies in the UK, the US and Europe, with respect to corporate governance in general and the role of the financial manager in particular
• list and define the ethical principles governing members of the association
• explain the importance of establishing an ethical financial policy for the financial management of the firm (incorporating the ethical principles of the association and the principles of good corporate governance) and describe the role and responsibility of senior financial executives/advisors with regard to its development
• describe the ways in which the ethical framework of a firm could
be undermined by agency effects and/or stakeholder conflicts
1
1
Trang 16• identify and analyse the areas in a scenario where the ethical framework of the firm may be undermined by agency effects and/or stakeholder conflicts and recommend strategies for dealing with them
• identify and explain the ethical issues which may arise within business issues and decisions of a firm in a scenario question
• advise a firm, in a scenario question, on the best ethical practice
in its financial management
• explain the interconnectedness of the ethics of good business practice between all of the functional areas of the firm
• recommend, in a scenario question, an ethical framework for the development of a firm’s financial policies and a system for the assessment of their ethical impact upon the financial
management of the firm
• analyse the potential impact of the following on corporate objectives and governance
– of sustainability and environmental risk issues– the carbontrading economy and emissions– environmental audits and the triple bottom line approach
Trang 17Control policy and action
Trang 18Agency theory
The result of the separation of ownership and control discussed above, is that an agency relationship is created between the company (and hence the shareholders) and the managers/directors
The difficulty with an agency relationship, is that once the agent has been
appointed, he is able to act in his own selfish interests rather than pursuing the objectives of the principal
This resultant loss to the principal is known as agency loss.
In the case of shareholders and directors, this may mean:
Principal agent theory underpins much of the corporate governance developments discussed in section 4 below. However, some have criticized this approach for adopting an excessively negative view of directors as being "opportunistic shirkers". "Stewardship theory", in contrast, views directors as wanting to be good stewards of the company's resources. The issue is not executive motivation but whether or not the organisational structure helps the executive to formulate and implement plans for high corporate performance
• the directors pursue their own interests at the expense of the company
• shareholders do not earn optimum returns
Trang 19
For each of the following groups of stakeholders in a company,
suggest a potential conflict of interest and give an example of the
resulting costs such a conflict could give rise to.
Trang 20• With more sophisticated products and services there needs to be a great deal of negotiation between the organisation and its supplier
Hierarchies of decision making
In order to prevent abuse of decisionmaking power by the executive, control over decisions tends to be distributed between:
In addition, a company may elect to take some key decisions in consultation with the employees (see section 4.6 below)
• the full board
• individual executive directors making operational decisions
• nonexecutive directors – audit committee– remuneration committee
• shareholders in general meeting
• specific classes of shareholders where particular rights are concerned
Performance monitoring and evaluation systems
Managers are more likely to act in accordance with shareholders’ wishes when their performance is regularly monitored and appraised against proscribed targets. To be of real value, the targets must be congruent with the maximisation of shareholder value
Expandable TextExpandable text
Expandable text
Trang 21
List ways in which management performance may be appraised
and for each method consider the extent to which it is congruent
with the maximisation of shareholder wealth.
Trang 22Managing conflict (from paper P1)
Methods of managing conflict (Thomas & Kilmann)
Mapping stakeholders (from paper P3)
Expandable textExpandable text
Trang 23
For each of the scenarios below suggest the likely source of
conflict and how such a conflict could have been avoided/could
The principles of corporate governance
Trang 24• pressure to deliver high returns to stakeholders
• relies on the market and outside investors for corporate control
• gives a higher priority to the interests of workers, managers, suppliers, customers, and the community
• management focused on stability of the firm and market growth, together with adequate profits
• uses a system of networks and committees to control the company
Governance Structures • single unitary
boards
• audit committees
• twotier board system consisting of
management board and supervisory board
Implications for investment policy
The differing corporate governance structures above have practical implications for investment policy
In the US/UK model the primary responsibility of management is to earn high returns for shareholders, therefore financial managers are more likely to:
• adopt new technologies
• consider high risk investments
Expandable textExpandable text
Trang 26• ensuring full, fair, accurate, complete, objective, timely and understandable disclosure in all reports and documents that the company files
• ensuring all company financial practices concerning accounting, internal accounting controls and auditing matters meet the highest standards of professionalism, transparency and honesty
• complying with all internal policy all external rules and regulations
• responsible use and control of assets and other resources employed
• promotion of ethical behaviour among subordinates and peers and ensuring an atmosphere of continuing education and exchange of best practices
In a review of capital expenditure over the past 12 months, it appears that owing to an outofdate application of the criteria, and the complexity
of subsidy rules, some $300,000 in government subsidies have been wrongly claimed in the period. There is still time to reissue the claim and the assistant finance director responsible readily agrees to do so.
However, it gradually becomes clear that the error, if it is one, has been made in each of the last 5 accounting periods and the company has received more than $1.5m to which it was not entitled
Expandable text
Test your understanding 6Test your understanding 5
Trang 27What fundamental principles are involved in any decision and
what action should the accountant take?
Development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
List the types of issues that would be given particular attention
when considering aspects of sustainable development.
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Test your understanding 7
Trang 28Carbontrading and emissions
Firms with high energy use may need to set objectives for their emissions of greenhouse gases in order to achieve targets set by governments under the Kyoto Protocol
The role of an environment agency
Government environment agencies (in the UK – Defra – the Department for the environment, food and rural affairs) work to ensure that business meets the environmental targets set internationally. They set local business targets
in key areas such as:
which will need to be taken into account when setting objectives for the business as a whole
both added and destroyed by the firm
Providing stakeholders with corporate performance data in each of these areas is known as triple bottom line reporting.
• economic value and
• environmental value and
• social valueExpandable text
Trang 30Trang 31
Test your understanding answers
• Being creative in the way performance is reported to improve the
financial statements – particularly where they own shares or share options
Trang 32
Stakeholders Potential conflict Costs resulting
from the conflict Employees v
Shareholders
Employees may resist the introduction of automated processes which would improve efficiency but cost jobs
Shareholders may resist wage rises demanded by employees
as uneconomical
Costs of strike or work to rule from employees. Costs of additional
compensation to redundant staff
Costs of strikes etc.
as above. Costs of reassuring
shareholders – additional meetings for example
Customers v Community at large
Customers may demand lower prices and greater choice, but
in order to provide them a company may need to squeeze vulnerable suppliers
or import products at great environmental cost
Costs of overcoming negative publicity
Time spent renegotiating supplier contracts/sourcing new suppliers
Shareholders v Finance providers
Shareholders may encourage management to pursue risky strategies in order to maximise potential returns, whereas finance providers prefer stable lower risk policies that ensure liquidity for the payment of debt interest
Agency costs: loan covenants restricting further borrowing, dividend payouts, investment policy etc
Government v Shareholders
Government will often insist upon levels of welfare (such as the minimum wage and Health and Safety practices) which would otherwise be avoided as
an unnecessary expense
Costs of complying with legislation
N.B. You may have come up with different suggestions. The point is to recognise that there are a huge range of potential conflicts of interest and each one results in additional costs for the business and therefore a reduction in returns to shareholders
Test your understanding 2
Trang 33• DPS – is a measure of immediate improvement in wealth but must
be looked at in conjunction with the company share price. Dividends may be reduced in order to invest in positive NPV projects, but in that case, the gain should be reflected in the share price
• Economic value added – EVA is a more sophisticated method of
residual income (registered as a trademark by Stern, Stewart &
Co.), which more accurately measures improvements in shareholder wealth by adjusting the accounting data to eliminate much of the subjectivity and incorporating the company’s WACC into the calculation
19
Test your understanding 3
Trang 34Nonfinancial measures Balanced scorecard
Many businesses operate a balanced scorecard approach to management appraisal. This involves setting targets in all of those aspects of the business where success is necessary if positive NPVs are to be earned. In addition to financial targets, managers are
measured on the satisfaction of customers, improvement of business practices and levels of innovation. Since achieving these targets should lead to improved project returns and greater cost efficiency, a balanced scorecard approach should lead to improved shareholder wealth
Employee/satisfaction
In addition, some businesses specifically set management targets related to employee satisfaction ratings, or related targets such as absenteeism or staff turnover
1 – Conflict
Many directors will want to purchase the equipment to reduce costs – this should improve profits and potentially their own financial rewards if they are linked
Employees (and possibly also) their unions may well resist the investment because of the associated job losses
Customers may be unhappy if the quality of mass produced products is not as good as the hand made versions
Marketing and sales directors may resist the change if they believe that quality will be undermined, and thereby revenue affected
Solutions
Potential conflict my have been avoided if reward packages were linked to a range of measures (such as those used by the Balanced Scorecard Approach) ensuring directors considered quality, customer satisfaction and employee welfare in any decisions
Equally employees could have been consulted in advance about any potential changes – perhaps at a works council meeting.
Test your understanding 4
Trang 363 – Conflict
A conflict may arise between the marketing director and the finance director over the allocation of resources since the proposed campaign exceeds the budget
Solutions
Decisions about spending over a certain limit may be referred to the full board for approval, to avoid conflict between individual directors.
If the matter is to be decided between the two directors, it would be better if they could collaborate to find a mutually satisfactory solution. It will be important to maintain a good working relationship and to set up a policy framework for such decisions in the future
• paying fair prices
• attempting to settle invoices promptly
• cooperating with suppliers to maintain and improve the quality of inputs
• not using or accepting bribery or excess hospitality as a means of securing contracts with suppliers
• charging fair prices
• offering fair payment terms
• honouring quantity and settlement discounts
• ensuring sufficient quality control process are built in that goods are fit for purpose
Test your understanding 5
Trang 37• Professional competence and due care – It is important that the
executive is applying the correct, most uptodate rules and guidelines to the calculations
• Confidentiality – It is not a breach of confidentiality to disclose such
information to the appropriate authorities where there has been an infringement of the law
Trang 39Financial strategy development
Chapter learning objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
• describe the relationship between strategy development and the goals and policies of a firm
• explain the role and responsibility of senior financial executives/advisors with regard to strategy development
• identify and explain a firm’s reasons and objectives for developing a policy with regard to investment selection and capital resource allocation
• identify and explain the goal of minimising a firm’s cost of capital
• identify and explain the reasons and objectives for developing a distribution and retention policy
• identify and explain the reasons and objectives for communicating financial policy and corporate goals to external stakeholders
• identify and explain the reasons and objectives for communicating financial policy and corporate goals to internal stakeholders
• explain the purpose of financial planning and control as part of financial policy
• explain the reasons and objectives for developing a policy with regard to risk management
• advise the board of directors in a scenario on the setting the financial goals of the business and in its financial policy development
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2
Trang 40• explain the importance of using financial resources in an efficient, effective and transparent manner and the role of senior financial executives in recommending to management strategies to achieve it