Strategic project management contemporary issues and strategies for developing economies

Contents Preface ...xi Editors ...xv Contributors ...xvii 1 The Role of Projects in Society ...1 CORLANE BARCLAY AND KWEKU-MUATA OSEI-BRYSON SeCtion i ConSiDeRAtionS in MAnAGinG SUCCeS

Strategic Project Management Contemporary Issues and Strategies for Developing Economies

Strategic Project Management

Contemporary Issues and Strategies

for Developing Economies

Edited by Corlane Barclay Kweku-Muata Osei-Bryson

Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S Government works

Version Date: 20150713

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-2513-6 (eBook - PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information stor- age or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access right.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that pro- vides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photo- copy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

www.copy-Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are

used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com

Corlane Barclay

To Joy Elizabeth Bryson (my youngest sister) and Michael Bryson (my youngest brother), who have through their lives taught me about project management, kindness, and courage

Kweku-Muata Osei-Bryson

Contents

Preface xi

Editors xv

Contributors xvii

1 The Role of Projects in Society 1

CORLANE BARCLAY AND KWEKU-MUATA OSEI-BRYSON SeCtion i ConSiDeRAtionS in MAnAGinG SUCCeSSFUL PRoJeCtS 2 A Dialogue on the Diversity in the Constituents of Project Success 13

CORLANE BARCLAY 3 Decision Style Profiles of Project Managers: Preliminary Exploration of Idea versus Action Orientation 31

KWEKU-MUATA OSEI-BRYSON AND CORLANE BARCLAY 4 A Framework for Developing Performance Objectives for Projects, Programs, and Portfolios 47

CORLANE BARCLAY AND KWEKU-MUATA OSEI-BRYSON 5 Prioritizing Project Objectives in a Group Decision-Making Context 67

KWEKU-MUATA OSEI-BRYSON 6 Project Management, Benefits Management, and Program Management 85

AMGAD BADEWI

SeCtion ii CHALLenGeS AnD ConStRAintS

in teMPoRARY oRGAniZAtionS

7 The End of the Line: Project Management Challenges in Small

Software Shops in Pakistan 107

SHAHID NADEEM SHAKIR AND JACOB NØRBJERG

8 Information Systems Quality in English-Speaking Caribbean

Software Development Firms 133

DELROY CHEVERS

9 Program Risk Management: Making Strategy Possible 153

BRUNO RAFAEL DIAS DE LUCENA, LEONARDO J LUSTOSA, AND DAVID HILLSON

10 Reexamination of the Information Systems Project Escalation

Concept: An Investigation from Risk Perspectives 179

NIPON PARINYAVUTTICHAI AND ANGELA LIN

SeCtion iii oBSeRVAtionS AnD CASeS FRoM inDUStRY

11 Improving Knowledge Movement in Building Design Projects 205

ZOHREH POURZOLFAGHAR

12 Knowledge Management Practices in Temporary Organizations 229

CORLANE BARCLAY

13 Who Should Champion E-Learning Projects in Educational

Institutions? Emergent Roles of School Leadership in a National E-Learning Project in a Developing Country 249

CHRISTINE CHARLTON-LAING AND GERALD GRANT

14 Lawmaking Process through the Project Lens: An Exploration

of a Cybersecurity Legislative Development Process in the Caribbean 269

CORLANE BARCLAY

SeCtion iV eVALUAtinG PRoJeCt SUCCeSS

AnD PeRFoRMAnCe

15 Introduction to the Project Performance Scorecard as a

Technique in Determining Project Success 293

CORLANE BARCLAY

16 Measuring the Success of Data Mining Projects: An Exploratory Application of the Project Performance Scorecard 305

CORLANE BARCLAY

17 Employment of Comparative Performance Evaluation

Techniques in Government IT Projects: A Jamaican Case Study 323

JULIET BRADFORD, COURTNEY THOMPSON, ALVA MYERS, AND CORLANE BARCLAY

Index 343

Preface

The majority of the countries of the world are considered to be within the oping” economies category, and these countries account for the majority of the population of the world In recent decades, developing nations have been increasing their utilization of projects as vehicles to drive economic and social development through formal application of project management principles Anecdotal and some empirical evidence suggest that practitioners may not be effectively applying best principles and practices of project management, with the result that organizations, including government organizations, in too many cases do not successfully manage important projects This phenomenon presents a deep challenge for economies that are already faced with severe financial and other resource constraints For example, the media continuously report on incidences of persistent overspending in govern-ment projects and problems of delayed work as a result of improper planning and risk management, which exacerbate the draining of the already overburdened cof-fers of these countries This, in turn, slows national development Contributing factors to this seemingly endless cycle are the ineffective application of project man-agement standards and techniques, the lack of suitably qualified and experienced project managers, and the paucity of resources that are relevant to their context

“devel-An analysis of the academic discourse (i.e., books and articles) revealed that the experiences, lessons, and innovations of developing economies, particularly in the Caribbean and some regions in Africa and Asia, are underreported Even though experiences from other regions are beneficial, it is even more imperative to share and provide insights that have strong contextual relevance to regional experiences Thus, practitioners and researchers can rely on techniques and experiences from shared experiences which enhance significance within cultural, economic, or politi-cal dimensions

In this book, Strategic Project Management: Contemporary Issues and Strategies for Developing Economies, we seek to provide answers to the following questions:

What are some of the principal contemporary issues and challenges experienced in

“developing” countries, and how can effective project management help to address them? Note that important lessons, opportunities, and innovations can be fostered, too; therefore, we also seek to examine some of the opportunities and lessons that can be harnessed and applied to areas of similar and different contexts Creating a

resource that fairly and realistically articulates some of the challenges and ences, while presenting strategies and sustainable solutions to stem some of the key relatable issues, was in our view a simple, yet effective contribution.

experi-This book is aimed at addressing current limitations in the literature through the provision of, and sharing of, shared experiences, insights, and best practices that are specific to the context of these economies to improve applicability (relatedness) and chance of adoption The book will share ideas, insights, and experiences in all forms of business projects that may include a core information and communica-tions technology (ICT) artifact or is supported by ICT to deliver the specific arti-fact, product, service, or result Its benefits include

◾ Providing diverse perspectives and experiences in the effective management

of projects from the developing economies

◾ Highlighting the importance of project maturity through the adoption of sound strategic project management principles

◾ Showcasing the application of project management standards and practices

in specific domains

◾ Showcasing emerging tools and techniques that can enhance the ment of different types of projects

manage-◾ Highlighting opportunities for future research and collaborations

The intended audience of this book includes project management practitioners, academic researchers including experienced researchers, and graduate and under-graduate students engaged in understanding or creating unique product, process service, or results, particularly in less-developed and emerging economies We expect that this book will be of particular interest to persons in industry and government across various sectors and functions, including ICT development, environment, law, government and capacity building, education, banking and finance, health, and other areas

The book consists of 17 chapters from various contributors representing various parts of the world, including Brazil, Jamaica, Malaysia, Pakistan, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States These chapters are categorized into four sections The discourse highlights the range of perspectives, experiences, and issues

in managing different types of projects across different domains and countries and emphasizes the similarities and nuances in managing projects where the strategies can resonate in an area that is relatively underrepresented

The first section, Considerations in Managing Successful Projects, provides an overview of foundational issues pertinent to managing successful projects These issues include the role of projects, diversity of the perspectives of project success, decision styles of project managers and possible implications on project success, development and prioritization of project objectives, and the impact of project and program management practices on benefits realization and the organization’s satis-faction, key indicators of success

The second section, Challenges and Constraints in Temporary Organizations, covers a range of issues relating to the management of constraints in managing the projects The challenges encountered in managing small software shops in Pakistan, project escalation, the implications for risks in effectively managing projects and programs, and the quality considerations in managing business and technology projects are presented.

The third section, Observations and Cases from Industry, provides case studies and experience in managing diverse projects, to include the implications of knowl-edge movements in building design projects; knowledge management practices in projects situated in Caribbean organizations; implications of project leadership a national e-learning project in Jamaica; and contextualization of the process of law-making in the Caribbean in a formal project management outlook

The final section, Evaluating Project Success and Performance, discusses the evaluation of project performance and success through the lens of an alternative measurement system, the Project Performance Scorecard An overview of the evalu-ation technique is provided, followed by a demonstration of it in evaluating and identifying project success criteria for data mining projects The section ends with

an examination of multiple evaluation techniques in the context of a government information technology (IT) project

We express our profound appreciation to the contributors for their willingness

to participate in this project and the reviewers for their efforts toward ing the quality of each chapter We are grateful to the publishing editor and staff for their support in helping to deliver this project We would also like to express our gratitude to our family and friends who provided us with kind support and assistance, in particular Beverly-Jean Cambridge and Nicolia Barclay Finally we extend praise and gratitude to the Creator in sustaining us this project life, from conceptualization to publication, and beyond

editors

Corlane Barclay is a business consultant and a full-time lecturer at the University

of Technology, Jamaica (since 2009), where, in 2011, she designed and successfully implemented the first and only wholly-owned graduate program in information systems management, with five specializations, of the School of Computing and Information Technology She also served as a coordinator for this program between

2011 and 2012 She is a certified project manager, with Project Management Professional certification, with over 10 years of industry and government experi-ence She also holds a doctorate degree in information systems from the University

of the West Indies, Mona campus, a master’s degree in information systems, and bachelor’s degrees in management and accounting and law from the same univer-sity She is currently in the final year at the Norman Manley Law School, Mona, Kingston, Jamaica, completing the certificate of legal education, which prepares for admission to practice in the Commonwealth Caribbean territories

Her current research interests include cyber security and cybercrime, project performance and project success, technology and telecommunications law, infor-mation and communication technologies for development, and knowledge dis-

covery and data mining models She has coedited one book, Knowledge Discovery Processes and Methods to Enhance Organizational Performance (2015), published

by CRC Press She has also published several chapters and papers in several

top-rated journals, including Information Systems Frontiers, Project Management Journal, the International Journal of Production Economics, and Information for Technology Development; and papers for academic conferences such as the Americas’

Conference on Information Systems and the Hawaii International Conference

on System Sciences She currently serves as part of the program committee for the Special Interest Group on Information and Communication Technology and Global Development (SIG GlobDev)

Kweku-Muata Osei-Bryson is a professor of information systems at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, where he also served as the coordinator of the information systems doctorate program from 2001 to 2003

He is a visiting professor of computing at the University of the West Indies at Mona Previously, he was professor of information systems and decision sciences

at Howard University, Washington, D.C He has also worked as an information systems practitioner in industry and government He holds a PhD in applied math-ematics (management science and information systems) from the University of Maryland at College Park, an MS in systems engineering from Howard University, and a BSc in natural sciences from the University of the West Indies at Mona.His research areas include data mining, decision support systems, knowledge management, information systems security, e-commerce, information technol-ogy for development, database management, information system outsourcing, and multicriteria decision making He has published in various leading journals

including Decision Support Systems, Information Systems Journal, Expert Systems with Applications, European Journal of Information Systems, Journal of Information Technology for Development, Information Systems Frontiers, Omega, Knowledge Management Research and Practice, Information Sciences, Information and Management, Journal of the Association for Information Systems, Journal of Database Management, Computers and Operations Research, Journal of the Operational Research Society, and the European Journal of Operational Research He serves as an associ- ate editor of the INFORMS Journal on Computing and the Journal of Information Technology for Development; as a member of the editorial board of the Computers and Operations Research journal; and as a member of the international advisory board of the Journal of the Operational Research Society His edited books include Advances in Research Methods for Information Systems Research: Data Mining, Data Envelopment Analysis, Value Focused Thinking (2014), Springer; Knowledge Management for Development: Domains, Strategies and Technologies for Developing Countries (2014), Springer; and Knowledge Discovery Processes and Methods to Enhance Organizational Performance (2015), CRC Press.

Leonardo J Lustosa

Retired professorRio de Janeiro, Brazil

Alva Myers

School of Computing and Information TechnologyUniversity of TechnologyKingston, Jamaica

Shahid Nadeem Shakir

Department of IT ManagementCopenhagen Business SchoolCopenhagen, Denmark

Rajabhat Rajanagarindra UniversityChachoengsao, Thailand

Contributors

The Role of Projects

in Society

Corlane Barclay and Kweku-Muata Osei-Bryson

Abstract: It is hard to imagine an organization that is not engaged in some kind of project activity Over the past decade, organizations have been turning from operations to project management as part of their competitive advantage strategy (PWC, 2004) This is also true for other types of structures such as government, charities, and nonprofits and agencies that are looking to promote improvements in their operations Alternatively stated, projects play an important role in all sectors of soci-ety as projects impact operations and operations impact new projects Unfortunately, despite the opportunities that projects present, they are often riddled with challenges and are at times abandoned or simply fail

to meet their goals These circumstances may be due to project man-agement factors, human factors, technical factors, and legal and regula-tory factors Sound project management and governance practices are

Contents

1.1 Projects in Society 2

1.1.1 Nature of Projects 2

1.1.2 Factors That Impact Project Failure 4

1.1.3 Project Management and Governance 5

1.1.4 Project Benefits 6

1.2 Concluding Remarks 7

References 8

strategies that can help mitigate against some struggles experienced by the project-initiating body.

This introductory chapter forms the basis for the discussion of projects and the diverse implications of not only using projects as drivers of change but adopting sound project management principles as a means

to promote development in a sustainable manner

Keywords: project; project management; project governance

of how history has revealed to us numerous unique, complex undertakings ited in time and scope (Packendorff, 1995) Similarly, the modern world has seen multiple ventures ranging in size, funding, and complexity such as the design of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) spaceships, expeditions

lim-to the Moon and Mars, the creation of the first computer, the development of the first set of vaccines for polio, the development of school curricula based on industry and global demands, and the delivery of a new bank product to market All these important projects have defined and influenced our lives in one way or another The common theme among the development of these monuments or artifacts is the creation of a unique outcome in terms of product, process, services, and results, and this involves some level of innovation in the actual outcome or process to produce the outcome

Against this background, a project can be described as an initiative undertaken

by an organization with its main purpose to provide value or beneficial change to diverse stakeholders through the introduction of new or modified service, process, product, or result (Barclay, 2009)

Other types of project forms include portfolios and programs and indicate differences in terms of scope, impact, and objectives According to the Project Management Institute (PMI, 2013), portfolios are a collection of any project forms that are managed as a group to achieve strategic objectives, and programs are managed in a coordinated manner in support of the portfolio Regardless of the dichotomy, they all seek to achieve some beneficial change because according to the Association of Project Management (APM, 2012), the concepts are fluid and

overlapping Therefore, for the purposes of this discussion, all of these ventures are referred to as projects.

Examples of these types of activities across different regions include the following:

◾ Implementation of a national health-care system such as the Affordable Health Care Act in the United States

◾ Development of a national cybersecurity strategy in countries such as Jamaica and Trinidad

◾ Creation of a model for the harmonization of information and cations technology (ICT) policies, legislation, and regulatory procedures (Harmonization of ICT Policies and Legislation across the Caribbean [HIPCAR] in the Caribbean and Africa, Caribbean, Pacific [ACP] regions)

communi-◾ Creation of new software products or new versions of existing software ucts such as the release of Windows 10

prod-◾ Enactment of educational initiatives such as the development of a national e-learning program for high schools and the Tablets in School pilot project

in Jamaica

◾ Development of new courses of study such as the development and mentation of an information systems–based graduate course of study at a university

imple-◾ Construction of a new road network linking distanced communities

◾ Creation of Ebola vaccines and treatment programs to treat and manage the disease in affected countries

Leading and directing the project activities is the usual way to effect change Managing projects is one of the most important organizational developments,

as seen from the significant growth in business sectors, industries, and academic research (Winter et al., 2006) A reasonable deduction is that without well-directed projects, there is a state of inertia or stagnation

These vehicles of change are typically initiated as a means to help achieve

an organization’s (or country’s) strategic plan (PMI, 2013) The strategic erations include stimuli such as competitive pressures, political pressures, social demands, and technological advances PMI (2013, p 9) further break down these considerations:

consid-◾ Market demand (e.g., a car company authorizing a project to build more efficient cars in response to gasoline shortages)

fuel-◾ Strategic opportunity/business need (e.g., a training company authorizing a project to create a new course to increase its revenues)

◾ Social need (e.g., a nongovernmental organization in a developing country authorizing a project to provide potable water systems, latrines, and sanitation education to communities suffering from high rates of infectious diseases)

◾ Environmental consideration (e.g., a public company authorizing a project to create a new service for electric car sharing to reduce pollution)

◾ Customer request (e.g., an electric utility authorizing a project to build a new substation to serve a new industrial park)

◾ Technological advance (e.g., an electronics firm authorizing a new project to develop a faster, cheaper, and smaller laptop based on advances in computer memory and electronics technology)

◾ Legal requirement (e.g., a chemical manufacturer authorizing a project to establish guidelines for the proper handling of a new toxic material)

1.1.2 Factors That Impact Project Failure

The literature continues to highlight multiple factors that contribute to the ure or abandonment of projects Business, government, and other initiating bod-ies have experienced that there can be chasms between the conceptualization of the project objectives and their realization The media have reported on numerous ventures undertaken which, due to various demands, do not progress past the con-ceptualization or initiating phase, and those that do are faced with hurdles that are not overcome, resulting in failure to meet project objectives

fail-According to Lesca and Caron-Fasan (2008), the findings suggest that ect failure and abandonment are caused by combinations of factors relating to the competence and experience of stakeholders, management and organization of the project system, and strategic alignment and changes in the organization’s internal structure This, according to them, is exhibited in lack of involvement by manage-ment and sponsor, poor project impetus, unqualified people, inaccurate or mis-matched expectations, poor direction or project leadership, strategy misalignment, poor participation, hostile culture, insufficient budget, conflating technical and managerial problems, previous project trauma, and underestimated complexity A survey of some of the experiences, particularly in a developing country context, seem to point to these contributing factors in project delay, failure, or abandon-ment Lyytinen and Robey (1999) further advanced that one reason for failure is the “collapse of organizational intelligence.” We support these claims and advance that poor governance is a principal reason for failure among projects

proj-We submit that the factors impacting poor performance and failure may be broadly classified into four overlapping areas:

1 Project management factor—relates to the direct control, leading and

direct-ing of the project

2 Human factor—involves the decisions, actions, and competence of the people

connected to and working to achieve the project objectives, including the project manager

3 Technical factor—relates to the specific set of tasks related to completing the

project outcome (i.e., product, service, process, or results)

4 Legal and regulatory factors—involve compliance and governance matters that

surround any legal ethical or regulatory requirements necessary in fulfilling the project objectives

1.1.3 Project Management and Governance

It is clear that a project represents substantial proportions of the productive effort across multiple business sectors (Cooke-Davies, 2000) and government Based on the importance placed on projects, the initiating bodies need to ensure that they have achieved, at minimum, the return on investments and the achievement of

or conformance to the project objectives A set of coordinated processes becomes necessary to direct or lead these important initiatives This set of activities can be referred to as project management or the management of projects (Morris, 1994)

A coherent structure in managing a project becomes necessary to fully exploit the realization of the benefits of the project An important consequence of manag-ing a project is its relationship with governance Governance broadly refers to a structure or mechanism of accountability and transparency that guides how the organization delivers value to its stakeholders It is the set of policies, regulations, functions, processes, procedures, and responsibilities that define the establishment, management, and control of projects, programs, and portfolios (APM, 2012) This perspective is based on corporate governance where, according to Dallago (2002), corporate governance relates to the ways in which crucial components of the orga-nization are organized, coordinated, and motivated to contribute to the common goal and adapt to change Corporate governance and project governance work in tandem, and we have now seen this element become a crucial formal consideration

in the management of projects as a means to aid in delivery of the objectives and promote change The inclusion of good governance principles in projects, including incorporating the project under the umbrella of a governance structure that forms part of the organizational governance structure, provides improved confidence in the project; promotes improved efficiencies and effectiveness; reduces fraud, errors, rework, or inefficiencies; and shows clear structure of accountability In short, gov-ernance provides the organization with the required internal controls and engen-ders confidence from the stakeholders that the investment in all the resources, not just the money, is justified

Good governance may be demonstrated in the following manner (APM, 2012):

◾ Adopting a structure for review and approval of project viability

◾ Recording and communicating decisions made to the relevant stakeholders

in a timely fashion

◾ Accepting responsibility by the organizational leadership

◾ Establishing clearly defined roles, responsibilities, and performance criteria

◾ Developing a coherent and supporting relationship between business strategy and the project

◾ Facilitating independent scrutiny of projects where necessary

◾ Fostering a culture of improvement

◾ Fostering a culture of full disclosure and transparency

◾ Giving members of the project the capability and resources to make ate and effective decisions

appropri-◾ Promoting stakeholder engagement in a manner that reflects stakeholder importance to the organization and in a way that fosters trust

◾ Ensuring that the business cases for project selection are supported by rate and up-to-date information that fosters trust

accu-◾ Deploying suitably qualified and experienced personnel

These elements underscore good practices while identifying several gaps or ciencies that may have plagued projects that were undertaken but failed to meet their objectives

defi-1.1.4 Project Benefits

There are several benefits of engaging in projects and of adopting sound project management and governance practices These benefits may be experienced by the stakeholders including the initiating body, customer, team, and manager For instance, directing a project provides excellent knowledge and learning opportu-nities (Barclay, 2009) During a project life cycle, novel ideas and practices are normally introduced as different project team members utilize their network This process provides a rich opportunity for knowledge enrichment and learning Empirical studies have been done to show the link between projects and organi-zational learning (Atkinson et al., 2006; Lyytinen and Robey, 1999) Essentially, with the production of a new project outcome, the project team’s competence is enhanced and organizational learning is experienced

The following are some additional benefits of effectively engaging in and ing a project:

direct-◾ Deliver the organizational or business strategy (e.g., improve market share by delivering new, improved, or redesigned products in the marketplace)

◾ Create beneficial changes in business and government (e.g., create an tive energy strategy that will see the expansion of alternative energy sources such as solar for electricity generation)

alterna-◾ Engender innovation (e.g., create wearable technologies)

◾ Promote business value (e.g., create alternative forms of cricket matches

in the Caribbean and Asian regions to generate added interest, reach a wider audience base, and create new revenue opportunities in the value chain)

◾ Manage risks and uncertainties (e.g., form disaster management programs to alleviate risks of hurricane or earthquake damage)

◾ Develop skills and competencies at the individual, organizational, and national levels (e.g., create new curricula for schools at different levels, i.e., primary, secondary, and tertiary)

◾ Create and manage organizational and project knowledge (e.g., realize lectual property benefits from the delivery of a project)

intel-◾ Promote economic and/or social development (e.g., create free or subsidized health-care program for sectors of a country)

These opinions and experiences further highlight the importance of the project and the need to effectively leverage the opportunities, which without proper man-agement may continue to perpetuate the challenges present in managing projects across the globe, and not only those in developing economies

differ-The remaining chapters are presented to highlight the importance of sound project management practices and good governance through the discussion of experiences from developing economies or present issues or solutions that may reso-nate with that demographic The principles are relevant to global project manage-ment (i.e., any project across the globe) but are focused on developing economies primarily because they are underrepresented or misrepresented in the academic project management dialogue

Section I, Considerations in Managing Successful Projects, provides an view of general issues pertinent to managing successful projects, including the role

over-of projects; the diversity over-of the perspectives over-of project success; the decision styles over-of project managers and possible implications on project success, development, and prioritization of project objectives; and the impact of project and program manage-ment practices on benefits realization and the organization satisfaction, which are key indicators of success

Section II, Challenges and Constraints in Temporary Organizations, covers a range of issues relating to the management of constraints in managing the projects The challenges encountered in managing small software shops in Pakistan, project escalation, the implications for risks in effectively managing projects and programs, and the quality considerations in managing business and technology projects are presented.

Section III, Observations and Cases from Industry, provides case studies and experiences in managing diverse projects to include the implications of knowledge movements in building design projects; knowledge management practices in proj-ects situated in Caribbean organizations; implications of project leadership of a national e-learning project in Jamaica; and contextualization of the process of law-making in the Caribbean in a formal project management outlook

Section IV, Evaluating Project Success and Performance, discusses the tion of project performance and success through the lens of an alternative measure-ment system, the Project Performance Scorecard An overview of the evaluation technique is provided, followed by a demonstration of it in evaluating and iden-tifying project success criteria for data mining projects, and concludes with an examination of multiple evaluation techniques in the context of a government information technology (IT) project

evalua-References

Alleman, G B (2005) Agile Project Management for IT projects In Y.-H Kwak, E G

Carayannis, and F T Anbari (Eds.), The Story of Managing Projects: An Interdisciplinary Approach Westport, CT: Praeger.

Association of Project Management (APM) (2012) The APM Body of Knowledge (6th ed.)

Buckinghamshire, UK: APM

Atkinson, R., Crawford, L., and Ward, S (2006) Fundamental uncertainties in projects

and the scope of project management International Journal of Project Management,

24, 687–698.

Barclay, C (2009) The evaluation of information systems (IS) project performance: A multi-perspective approach to improved understanding PhD, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica

Cooke-Davies, T J (2000) Towards improved project management practice: Uncovering the evidence for effective practices through empirical research PhD dissertation, Leeds Metropolitan University, United Kingdom

Dallgo, B (2002) Corporate governance and governance paradigm Journal of Economics and Business, 5(2), 173–196.

Highsmith, J (2004) Agile Project Management: Creating Innovative Products (Agile Software Development Series) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley.

Lesca, N., & Caron-Fasan, M L (2008) Strategic scanning project failure and

abandon-ment factors: Lessons learned European Journal of Information Systems, 17(4), 371–386.

Lyytinen, K., & Robey, D (1999) Learning failure in information systems development

Information Systems Journal, 9(2), 85–101.

Morris, P W G (1994) The Management of Projects London: Thomas Telford.

Packendorff, J (1995) Inquiring into the temporary organization: New directions for

proj-ect management research Scandinavian Journal of Management, 11(4), 319–333 PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC) (2004) Boosting Business Performance through Programme and Project Management A First Global Survey on the Current State of Project Management Maturity in Organisations across the World London, UK:

PricewaterhouseCoopers, Connected thinking

Project Management Institute (PMI) (2013) A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ® Guide) (5th ed.) Newtown Square, PA: PMI.

Rasmusson, J (2006) Agile project initiation techniques—The inception deck and boot camp Paper presented at the Agile Conference, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Takeuchi, H., and Nonaka, I (2004) Hitotsubashi on Knowledge Management Singapore:

CONSIDERATIONS

IN MANAGING

SUCCESSFUL PROJECTS

In short, a successful project is likely to lead to a successful business However, the perception of success continues to mean different things

to different people; it is therefore important for managers to better understand and manage this dynamic concept in their quest for delivery

Contents

2.1 Introduction 142.2 Perception of Success 152.3 Determining Project Success 162.4 Stakeholders’ Influence on Project Success 192.5 Critical Success Factors 202.6 Critical Success Criteria 222.6.1 Triple Constraint Methodology (TCM) 222.6.2 Alternative Project Success Criteria 222.7 Conclusion 27References 27

of value A meta-analysis of the literature shows a broad dichotomy in the area that may be classified into issues relating to project success fac-tors, project success criteria, framework for success, and the influence of specialized groups of stakeholders such as project managers on success This chapter presents a discussion on the main elements of project suc-cess from the project management literature.

Keywords: project success; success criteria; project performance; ect success models

proj-2.1 Introduction

According to the Project Management Institute (PMI, 2013), in order for a project

to experience success, there are certain activities the project team should do, such as

◾ Adopt appropriate processes required to meet the project objectives

◾ Use a defined approach that can be adapted to meet requirements

◾ Establish and maintain appropriate communication and engagement with stakeholders

◾ Comply with requirements to meet stakeholder needs and expectations

◾ Balance the competing constraints of scope, schedule, budget, quality, resources, and risk to produce the specified project outcome

This implies that success encompasses certain intricacies and expertise in understanding the wide net of people or groups impacted by the project It there-fore follows that understanding project success is important to understanding a project’s value and contribution in an organization It has been argued that dif-ferent stakeholders have different views of success (Shenhar et al., 2001; Shenhar and Levy, 1997); therefore, to properly account for the diversity in views and to effectively measure project contribution, it is imperative to establish the perspective

of success at the onset of the project

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a brief synthesis of the ing views of project success to help inform project practitioners as they respond

complement-to the demands of successful project completion and product delivery According

to Judgev and Muller (2005), the issue of project success raises important erations regarding client expectations The same is true for sponsors, executives, contractors, and other key stakeholders Therefore, a diversified understanding is important for project managers and executives (Jugdev and Muller, 2005)

consid-Dialogue on diversity in the constituents of project success is significant to practitioners in particular as they grapple to identify indicators of success, manage them, and report on them It is expected that greater understanding of the nuances

in a project is achieved through the dissection of some of the common areas evant in managing projects

2.2 Perception of Success

Researchers have long contended with the diverse perspectives on success, while practitioners have yearned for realization of benefits of success from their change initiatives The set of actors and interactions have evolved over time from users interacting with the system based on perceived simple or uncomplicated needs to stakeholders across locations, cultures, and environments with varying strategic demands Consequently, there has been a conundrum on the perception of suc-cess, what it means, to whom it applies, and how it is measured Researchers have posited that success may mean different things to different stakeholders including contractor, sponsor, project manager, team members, and clients (Shenhar et al., 2001; Shenhar and Levy, 1997) Thus, it is expected that assessing performance would involve complex and intricate maneuvers, and multiple distinct yet interre-lated constructs come into play from each perspective to derive project success An analysis of the project success literature finds that the discussion is primarily con-fined to two streams: the criteria for project success and factors that may influence project success Lim and Mohamed (1999) made an important distinction between research streams: one contends with the elements that may influence outcome, and the other is concerned with the elements by which the outcome is adjudged or assessed Across the research streams spectrum, it is apparent that the interpreta-tion of success is often taken for granted in several of the discourses Over time, researchers have added dimensions and interpretations to their understanding of project success, such as project success (deWit, 1988), project performance success (Cooke-Davies, 2002), product success (Baccarini, 1999), and project management success (Baccarini, 1999; Cooke-Davies, 2002) This interesting dialogue points to the prolonged debate on the constituents of project success

In an analysis of the literature over the last 40 years, Jugdev and Muller (2005) highlighted the evolution of our understanding of project success within the frame-work of the project and product life cycles as the basis for the determination of out-come perspectives The four evolving research themes were categorized into project implementation and handover, critical success factor (CSF) lists, CSF frame-works, and strategic project management paradigms (Jugdev and Muller, 2005) (Figure 2.1) They further outlined that the evolution of understanding reflected

a slow but gradual understanding of success, and they highlighted the widening reach and implications for project managers

The first period showed that success was measured using simple metrics such as time cost and specifications It is argued that these were easy to use and identify, and managers simply focused on getting the job done within that simplistic frame

of reference The second period highlighted an emphasis on CSF lists as things or tasks that must go right As a consequence, researchers sought to identify those ele-ments that must go right for success to happen The third period reflected an emer-gence of what is considered integrated frameworks on project success and identified the role of the stakeholders in how the project was seen during the project life cycle

The fourth period focused on complexity in the dimension of project success and included benefits to the organization and preparation for the future.

Although this development already occurred in the literature, many nizations are still at an earlier period of understanding given how they describe their project achievements It is therefore reasonable to assert that the adoption of measurement approaches to success is also reflective of organizational and project maturity

orga-2.3 Determining Project Success

The ongoing debate on project success has provided some interesting and divergent perspectives However, this phenomenon may not be initially evident in practice as the conventional definition seemed to be consistent across industries The KPMG (2005) survey revealed that many participants (over 70%) continue to view projects

as conformance of time, budget, and specification, which points to a reliance on the traditional measurement approach Despite this, however, industry reports and anecdotal evidence indicate that practitioners may realize the shortcomings of their current measurement practices or view of project success PMI (2013) explained that due to the temporary nature of projects, the success should be measured in terms of completing the project within the constraints of scope, time, cost, quality, resources, and risk approved between the project manager and senior management

As projects increase in complexity to meet the changing demands of the petitive environment, measuring the success or failure of project performance has become increasingly difficult With increased complexity, there are increased dimensions and contexts to consider The nuanced activities and considerations

com-Project Life Cycle

Implementation Period 1: Project implementation and handover (1960s–1980s) Period 2: CSF lists (1980s–1990s) Period 3: CSF frameworks (1990s–2000s) Period 4: Strategic project management (twenty-first century)

Project Life Cycle

Figure 2.1 Evolving view of project success (From Jugdev, K., and Muller, R.,

Project Management Journal, 36, 4, 19–31, 2005 With permission.)

make the assessment effort a challenging endeavor Projects thus far have been sured primarily based on the triple constraint methodology (TCM) The following are some of the criticisms presented in the literature:

mea-◾ Measurement of success is a complex and imprecise matter since it may mean different things to the diverse perceptions of the stakeholders, and the views of success of a project may change over time (Cooke-Davies, 2000; deWit, 1988) Stakeholders have different interests in a project and therefore will have varying perspectives on what is most important to them Thus, it

is understandable that success will mean different things to them A project manager may see success in the completion of the project tasks in a timely manner, the sponsor may see success in the timely implementation of the information system coupled with the promised benefits, while the end user may be more concerned with the relative ease of use of the system and the manner in which it is able to make the tasks simpler and more efficient It is therefore important to reiterate the necessity to incorporate all, if not most,

of the possible measurement perspectives that the stakeholders may consider Accordingly, researchers have attempted to investigate various approaches to extend the traditional measurement approach while incorporating the stake-holders’ perspectives

◾ The old success criteria are no longer adequate and a fundamental shift

is required (Cohen and Graham, 2001) Questions have also been raised

on its suitability with its application (Atkinson, 1999; Wateridge, 1998) From the discussion above one can discern the implication of the traditional approach to measuring project performance This approach does not take into consideration the complex project environment with varying and diverse views of success Therefore such an approach will be deemed inadequate to meet the needs of contemporary projects and organizations As a result, sev-eral researchers have called for a fundamental shift in the traditional way of thinking (Cohen and Graham, 2001) to a new way that incorporates innova-tion, flexibility, and contextual understanding

◾ A shift to strategic project management is necessary. Given the increased understanding of the breadth, reach, and implication of the project delivery,

it becomes necessary to align the project with the organizational strategic objectives and apply similar approaches in determining viability and per-formance in the delivery of the project, the product, and organizational objectives

From the literature, it can be considered that the traditional approach may contribute to the continued perceptions of high magnitude of failure on the basis

of the criteria being assessed For example, the KPMG Survey (2005) and the study

by White and Fortune (2002) revealed that many organizations still relied on the traditional measurements and are continuously faced with project challenges and

a high perceived rate of failure More than a decade later, anecdotal evidence gests that this attitude has not significantly changed The implication suggests that the measurements yield the perceived results Therefore, it is believed that such a complex activity requires a more realistic and complex assessment Additionally, measurement perspectives that attempt to incorporate diverse perspectives and extension of the current project assessment literature will be beneficial to the infor-mation system (IS) project community.

sug-In the pursuit of understanding this complex construct, researchers have ited various dimensions of project success

pos-De Wit (1988) distinguished between project success which is measured against the overall objectives of the project, and project performance success which is mea-

sured against time, cost, and scope Cooke and Davis (2002) agreed with DeWit’s

perspective and submit that there is a difference between project success and project management success, where the former focuses on the overall objectives of the project

while the latter focuses on time, cost, and quality considerations

Baccarini (1999) provided a different perspective He suggested that project

success consists of two components: project management success, which ties into de Wit’s perspective (time, cost, and scope), and product success, which is aligned with

the product outcome of the project This perspective was elucidated in later work (Collins and Baccarini, 2004, p 212)

Project management (PM) success focuses upon the project process and has three criteria:

◾ Meeting time, cost, and quality objectives

◾ Ensuring quality of the project management process

◾ Satisfying project stakeholders’ needs where they relate to the project agement process (primarily project owner and project team)

man-Product success deals with the effects of the project’s final product and has three criteria:

◾ Meeting the project owner’s strategic organizational objectives (goal)

◾ Satisfying users’ needs (purpose)

◾ Satisfying stakeholders’ needs where they relate to the product (primarily customer/user)

Over time, researchers have placed increased emphasis on the practitioners’ perspectives in highlighting what they considered most important Project success is the satisfaction of stakeholders’ needs and is measured by the suc-cess criteria as identified and agreed at the start of the project (Association of Project Management [APM], 2006) Lim and Mohamed (1999) posited that

two criteria are sufficient in the determination of project success: completion and satisfaction through the analysis of the macro and micro environments

Meanwhile, Agarwal and Rathod (2006) considered the internal ers in their exploratory survey and found that meeting scope was the highest determinant of success Cohen and Graham (2001) have suggested that projects should seek to increase shareholder value, manage cash flow, select best time

stakehold-to market, and select best time stakehold-to break away from fixed budget, schedule, and outcome perspective The new paradigms have not yet become pervasive

in practice (White and Fortune, 2002) Hence, it is a challenge for researchers

to create appropriate measures and provide best practices for organizations to easily adopt over time

As the dialogue continues, additional considerations are brought to the fore The manner in which success is measured in the different project forms provides added insight into how success can be determined, not just for the each specific view but also as an amalgamation of these views The PMI (2013) underlined each given its context has different requirements in determining success Project success is measured by the product and project quality, timeliness, budget com-pliance, and degree of customer satisfaction Program success is measured by the degree to which the program satisfies the need and benefits for which it was undertaken Portfolio success is measured in terms of the aggregate investment performance and benefit realization of the portfolio It is reasonable to begin

to consider that the investment performances, benefit realization of the project outcome, and stakeholder satisfaction are also useful indicators to assess project performance

2.4 Stakeholders’ Influence on Project Success

It is the nature of the project that there are multiple individuals or groups nected to and who have a vested interest in the project outcome These views are at times competing The stakeholders have significant impact on the success

con-of the project (i.e., in how the project is viewed and how the project ties are carried out) Studies have shown that leadership, client acceptance, user involvement, top management support, and stakeholder engagement, to name are few, are normally identified as important factors that impact the success of the project There are certain stakeholder groups that may have more impact

activi-on the viability and success of the project For example, the project manager is normally responsible for project leadership, and the project team is responsible for performing the tasks or work packages Similarly, PMI (2013) shared that the project manager is responsible for leading the team that is responsible for achieving project objectives Therefore, without effective execution of the project managers’ role, the team’s role, and the roles of other stakeholders, the project is likely to perform poorly

While the extent of the impact of a project manager’s leadership style on project success is still being investigated (Turner and Muller, 2005), it has been

shown to have an impact on how success is viewed and assessed (Müller and Turner, 2007) Additionally, Lee-Kelley and Loong (2003, p 590) found that the project manager’s leadership style influenced his or her perception of success

on the project in that there is “a significant relationship between the leader’s perception of project success and his or her personality and contingent experi-ences Thus the inner confidence and self-belief from personal knowledge and experience are likely to play an important role in a manager’s ability to deliver a project successfully.”

2.5 Critical Success Factors

As noted earlier, an analysis of the perceived success of project literature revealed that the stream is primarily demarked into two areas: assessment criteria and fac-tors impacting success Research on project performance is considered a distinct stream that is derived from aspects of these two areas and other disciplines Lim and Mohamed (1999) clarified the difference between criteria and factors of project success Criteria are the set of principles or standards by which judgment is made, whereas factors are the set of circumstances, facts, or influences which contribute

to the result They went on to use the analogy of student acceptance and ulation to graduation The admission criteria may include fees, duration, experi-ence, and so on, while the graduation criteria include the subjects, passing marks, and so on Fulfilling the two criteria would mean success in getting the degree Conversely, failure to comply with any of the criteria would result in the failure to obtain the degree Contrastingly, factors influencing the admission and graduation criteria could include the number of applicants, quota, competition, age, motiva-tion, health, distractions, and so on These factors could be significant, but they do not determine success or failure in getting the degree (Lim and Mohamed, 1999,

deliver-in identifydeliver-ing suitable practices or values that may positively deliver-influence a project outcome A study of the literature revealed that the predominant study perspectives

on project success were time and cost analysis The result is primarily focused on critical factors that may affect project outcome in respect to time and cost, with a few studies that included satisfaction (Table 2.1) While this is important, there are opportunities to determine factors for other important success constructs, includ-ing satisfaction, learning, and preparing for the future In other words, a combi-nation of both research streams may provide improved knowledge or insights for practice

Table 2.1 Summary of Critical Factors in Projects

Chapter 1: Literature Chapter 2: Context Success Measures Chapter 3: Chapter 4: Critical Success Factors

Time, cost Strong project commitment, early stakeholder

influence, stakeholder endorsement of project plans and rich project communications

Bryde and Robinson

(2005)

Client vs contractor empirical comparison

Time, cost, stakeholders’

satisfaction

Minimization of project cost and duration (contractors’ perspective) and satisfaction of stakeholders’ needs (clients’ perspective) Cooke-Davies (2002) Empirical research of more

than 70 large multinational and national companies

Time, cost, quality

Twelve hard and soft factors that are mainly tied

to organizational, project, and program practices

Dvir, Lipovetsky,

Shenhar, and

Tishler (2003)

Multivariate statistical analysis of factors

Time, cost A well-designed initiation phase is the most

important factor in project success, formal design and planning documents are instrumental in meeting project time and budget constraints

Pinto and Slevin

(1999)

Success factors in project implementation

Time, cost, scope Identified 10 general factors: project mission, top

management, project schedule/plan, client consultation, personnel, technical tasks, client acceptance, monitoring and feedback, communication and troubleshooting

2.6 Critical Success Criteria

Organizations have been seeking suitable performance management systems to improve tracking of their core areas to assess positive results while taking timely cor-rective actions for the negative results Management and operational research have led the charge in providing tools to assist executives and managers in their day-to-day activities The project management and IS fields have taken a renewed focused

in identifying measures through the adoption of interdisciplinary approaches This section looks at the conventional approach, triple constraint, and the current alter-native perspectives proffered by researchers

2.6.1 Triple Constraint Methodology (TCM)

The traditional approach to measuring a project is typically referred to as the triple constraint methodology (PMI, 2004), or the iron triangle (APM, 2006) It is a frame-

work for evaluating competing demands, where it considers the conformance to budgetary, schedule, and scope constraints (PMI, 2004) High-quality projects deliver the required results within scope, on time, and within budget (PMI, 2004) Budget is the approved estimate for the project Scope pertains to activities within specified features and functions Time considers scheduled planned dates for per-forming activities They explained that if one of these factors changes, at least one other is likely to be affected Traditional wisdom may suggest that the client may

be more concerned about these metrics, and as such the performance or success of

a particular endeavor needs to consider these elements

There has been increased emphasis on measurements to track the conformance

to these metrics during various stages of the project The earned value analysis (EVA) is one such measure that is used to analyze cost and resource management (PMI, 2004) The EVA has shown to be an effective measure for project time and cost management through the provision of good estimates of actual project comple-tion cost and schedule (Brandon, 2006) It also has the ability to identify poten-tial problem areas, so that appropriate corrective action can be initiated (Brandon, 2006)

2.6.2 Alternative Project Success Criteria

Because a project is a complex and dynamic endeavor, it has numerous tives; therefore, criteria for measuring project success must reflect different views (Struckenbruck, 1986) As a result, researchers have proposed alternative project performance measurements Two of the pioneers in this realm, Morris and Hough (1987), proposed that meeting financial and technical performance and achieving commercial benefits are important considerations in the determination of project performance, which extends the boundaries beyond traditional considerations A literature survey of project assessment tools across different fields found some level