Human anatony and physyology 11e marieb 1

While teaching at Holyoke Community College, where many of her students were pursuing nursing degrees, she devel -oped a desire to better understand the relationship between the scientif

Brief Contents

UNIT 1 Organization of the Body

1 The Human Body: An Orientation 1

2 Chemistry Comes Alive 23

3 Cells: The Living Units 60

4 Tissue: The Living Fabric 115

UNIT 2 Covering, Support, and Movement of the Body

5 The lntegumentary System 150

6 Bones and Skeletal Tissues 173

7 The Skeleton 199

8 Joints 251

9 Muscles and Muscle Tissue 279

10 The Muscular System 323

UNIT 3 Regulation and Integration of the Body

11 Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous

Tissue 390

12 The Central Nervous System 434

13 The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex

Activity 489

14 The Autonomic Nervous System 531

15 The Special Senses 553

16 The Endocrine System 601

UNIT 4 Maintenance of the Body

17 Blood 642

18 The Cardiovascular System: The Heart 670

19 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels 706

20 The Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs

and Tissues 766

21 The Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Body

Defenses 781

22 The Respiratory System 818

23 The Digestive System 868

24 Nutrition, Metabolism, and Energy Balance 926

25 The Urinary System 974

26 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance 1012

UNIT 5 Continuity

27 The Reproductive System 1041

28 Pregnancy and Human Development 1091

29 Heredity 1124

The 11th Edition of Elaine Marieb and Katja Hoehn's best-sell ng A&P text and media program

motivates and supports both novice learners and expert students, more than ever before Each

carefully-paced chapter guides you in advancing from mastering terminology to applying knowledge

in clinical scenarios, to practicing the critical thinking and problem-solving skills that are required for entry to nursing, allied health, and exercise science programs

Before you look up details and information within a chapter, read the

Chapter-Opening Roadmap, which visually groups and organizes "big picture" concepts

and shows how they are related To focus your studying, review the numbered

Key Concept Headings, Learning Outcomes, and summaries

UNIQUE! Chapter Roadmaps

prov i de a visual overv i ew of the key

concepts in the chapter and show

how they relate to each other Each

key concept "br i c k " in the roadmap

corresponds to a numbered section

with i n the chapter

Each numbered section within t he

chapter begins with a Key Concept

Heading that helps you qu i ckly grasp

the "big idea" of the d i scussion that

follows

feature a health care professiona l who describes how

the chapter content relates to the i r

everyday work You can access all

of the Career Connections videos

through an open access web page

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-Joi nt s are c l assi f ie d in t o three structural and three functional cate g ories

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Seep 251 Learning Outcomes are presented at

the beginning of each chapter section

to give you a prev i ew of essential

i nformat i on to study

L-r irt -J LC,:•~ • • • present key information and serve as "one-stop shopping"

study tools 13 new Summary Tables have been added to this edition

T~ble 5 1 5ummory of Cl.rUlncous Glonds

fCCR I N£ SW£4T Gl.AND-S APOOIUJC SWEAT GLANDS 5UACEOUS GlANDS

• Some •ntib.rteriel pop«t1u • I te!p prnent w.t,r ou

• ~~ltfVI pros;~rtffto

'fy pe of HyJ>otonk fliV•t• of blood PIIJM• F41,ai of blood p li-""1\11 w i t h ~ S.bl.WI"" (,1,;n ot/Hcr.tlor)

~ thod o Mtro«ine (tMO<ytotii)

*"-Secr1tlon S*l:ln ,urf.ce Uluil~ "'llf*' ~ o1 hilr foll dr VW lty t.W•~ Pi" of twlr folhtl•;

E>clU Duel ""., st•n surflce fOmttim~ tlc:ln surf~

Bod)• L M:lltlen Mrywl'ler•, but ~ a l l y palms,

tolos.for>ht•d

Seep 162

Sebaceous Glands

The sebaceous glands (se-ba'shus: "greasy'"), or oil glands

(Figure 5.9a), are simple branched alveolar gland~ L aL are found

all over the body cxccp1 in the th i ck skin oflhe pahns and so l es

They are ~mall on the hody rnmk and li mh~ hu1 quite large on

the face neck and upper chesL These glan~ MJCrete an oily sub

-stance called sebu1n (sc'bum) The ccn1ral cells of the aJvcoti

accun1ulate oily lipids until they becon1e so engorged 11,., thev

burst, so functionally these gland~ are holocrine gland · ( -<Ill p 126)._

The accumulmed lipids and eel I fragments cons1iru1c scoom

Seep 163

guide you to

review specific pages where a concept was

first introduced

and A&P terminology while building and practicing important language skills

Anatomy and Physiology is a visual science To succeed, you need to practice and develop visual

literacy skills for understanding and interpreting information To help you achieve this goal, the text

and associated figures are tightly integrated so that you never have to flip pages back and forth to

connect visua Is with words

• · (for

a total of 26) walk you through complex

processes using exceptionally clear,

easy-to-follow illustrations with integrated text

explanations

" - • , ·-·- """•f , ,._

-

-·-· _ AwrLH• ~ "°"""

-

See pp

808 - 809

bring the 6 new Focus

Figures to life using

short video segments

-Activation and Differentiation of B Cells

An i m munocompe 1 en 1 bu t n aive B

lymphocyte is (JJ't i, fnl!II when mateh

-ing a nt i gens bind co irs surface

recep-tor a n d c ros.,-lin k 11 <.l ja t:<: n l n: ccp lvr

toge t he r A n t igen b inding i~ q u ickly

f o ll owed by rece p1 o r -media1cd c n

do-rece p t°'s

~yt0s,ib of the cro,,-linkcu n111igcn-rcccp1or i:01111 >lcxc, A, w e

d esciibed pre,•ious l y t his i s ca ll ed clo n al selectio11 an d is ro l

-, • · are as follows:

3.1 The Plasma Membrane, pp 64-65

11.4 Postsynaptic Potentials and Their Summation, pp 418-419

16.2 Stress and the Adrenal Gland, pp 628-629

18.2 The Cardiac Cycle, pp 6~95

21.1 An Example of a Primary Immune Response, pp 808-809

28.2 Fetal and Newborn Circulation, pp 1108-1109

i nstructor , hi ghl i ghting i mportant po i nts to remember

' • LW , Ll.:1

• are strategically placed within the text to visually reinforce the text discussion

Seep 796

t.c0

O"'~

As you build your knowledge and confidence in A&P, practice responding to the more challenging

questions- you are likely to encounter similar questions on a test or licensing exam Your extra effort

will pay off at exam time!

A g r eater

• • • sect i ons with i n each chapt e r and include • • • ,

, • , and Dozens of n e w dmj]

ask you t o l abe l st r uctures

or interpret visua l informat i on

• ask you t o

c reate visuals that r einfor c e important

co n c epts by d r awing a stru ct u r e , annotating

a f i gu r e, or creating a summary tabl e

All of the • •

• · , a r e now or an i zed into 3 l evels

of diffi c ulty based on : , , , •

• • ••

Leve l 1 : Remembe r /Understand

Leve l 2 : App l y / Analyze

Leve l 3 : Eva l uate/Synthesize

Check Your Understand ng

5 How does a nucleus 'Mth1n the brain differ from a nucleus

8 EU4h \M1id1 ~t1 ucturcll clnd fun1.tioncil type of neuron is

activated first when you burn your finger? Which type is activated last to move your finger away from the source of heat?

9 Which part oi the neuron is its fiber? Hov,

do nerve fibers differ from the fibers of connective ossue (see Chapter 4) and the fibers 1n musde (see Chap1er 9)?

Seep 400

3 t,):® Create a summary table to help you study the pharynx

by companng and contrasting rts three parts For each part,

L Identify whaepithelium fou'ld there and the associated :onsilst it conducts (air, food, or both), the type of

conducts Ep!therturn TonsLls

c:tllaud

Ph.iryn&eal Tut>;I

coltlTlrN l r

Oroph.irynx Air and Str.1tified Pal.nine

(ood Squdrtrous lingual

L.irynscph.irynx Air iind Strati fled (none)

See p 824 and Answers Append i x

The authors of this text, Elaine Marieb and Katja Hoehn, share insights from their own clinical experience to help you prepare for your future career in health care All clinical examples and applications are signaled with

an easy-to-f ind "Clinical" label

, · , , · discussions alert you to the consequences of body systems

not functioning optimally Relevant photos have

been added to selected discussions for visual

reinforcement

-, HOMEOSTATIC

, - \~ - IMBALANCE S 6 C.hnngc, in 11 o il nppcnrnncc

ca n he lp diagnose certain co11

-d i ioas F o r exa mple ye ll ow

tinged na ils may indicate a

re<p i ratory or th yroi d gland

diso rd e r (Th ickene d ye l ow

n u ils fire u,uully due to u run g u,

in fec tin g tb e nail.) An o ut ward

cooc.avi ty oft.he nail (koilo11y c hia

or ",poon n ni1 : · Figure 5.8) Figu.re 5.8 Koionychia

may s i gnal an i r o n deficiency

Ho riLontul li nes ( B eau's lin e.-.) across the nails can be a s ign of -e,·ere illne,;., that affect, the who l e body such a, unco ntr olle d

diabetes a heart attaek, or cancer chen101herapy • •

Seep 161

, · a re provided at the end of Chapters 5-29 and challenge you to apply your

knowledge to realistic clinical scenarios

Each Clinical Case Study includes

m,nF for practice with the kinds

of challenge questions that you will eventually

encounter on a licensing exam Practice answering

these questions on your own or in collaboration

with classmates Your instructor can also assign

along with Homeostatic Imbalance questions, Clinical

Case Study Coaching Activities, and Nurses Need

Physiology Case Studies

70 - Year-Old Male with Po l yuria

t.1r Gutteltlilll a 70-)-C:lr~ld m3le , wa~ bl-ought mto the ER

lie Ii.id been sick

,ievcral ~YI with the

Ou and was found confused and b:vely coosciou by bi

IV (intra1tno11->) Ouid ud electrolyte repl.:lct'menl

Strict l&O [c-.ueful mea,urement of fluid inw.c (e.g IV drinking) and OOlplll (e g • un nc)J

1 You 11,ould expec1 high le\-el s of blood glucose and the P'CSCD« of @luco.e Md I.clone) in Mr

Guuenun ·s urine if:

a Ha pancreai ;, secretills too much ,nw6n

b HI' li\-er i, ~Imp 100 little insulin

d 111, h1er 1, ~Imp 100 much 11Jucagon

Seep 641

You can read your textbook without having to add weight to your bookbag!

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be downloaded for

most iOS and Android

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from the Apple App or

-taking, highl ighting,

boo k ma rk ing, search,

and links to glossary

terms The Marieb/

Hoehn e T ext also

includes dozens of

embed d ed videos and

animat i ons that bring

A&P concepts to life

Generating the Resting Mem ·

Mastering A&P® provides tutorials and review questions that you can access before,

during, and after class

•

icmm; ~ teach complex ~ ysiol ; g ~ ~ roce : ses

0

~ sing exceptionally clear animations, interactive tutorials, games,

and quizzes IP2 features new graphics, quicker navigation,

and a mobile-friendly design New topics include

Generation of an Action Potential and Cardiac Cycle IP2

and IP animations can be assigned from the Mastering

A&Pe item library or accessed through the Study Area

• • Customizable Flashcards

allow you to create a personalized, mobile

-friendly deck of flashcards and quizzes using

images from P ractice Anatomy Lab Use the

checklist to select only those structures covered

O A nterk>r na1 al spine

0 Body

O Carotid cana l

Q y,., , cOltllfac.t

mobile-friend ly sets of questions with extensive feedback for you to test, learn, and r etest yourself on basic concepts NEW! Instructo r s can select or deselect specific questio n s for assignments from more than 3,000 questions, organ ized by chapte r section

• · • • • • · help i nstructors efficient l y make use of the best teach i ng too l s before , during, and after class Accessed through the Instructor Resources area of Master i ng A&pl> and prepared by expert A&P instructors, each modu l e includes a var i ety of teaching i deas and ready - to ·

use resources for teach i ng 10 challeng i ng course top i cs

smartphone, tablet, or laptop to respond to questions i n

class Visit learningcata l ytics com to l earn more

• • : • offers thousands of tutorials, activities, and questions that can be assigned for homework and practice Highlights of new assignment options include:

•

•

: • •

give you practice learn i ng and using word roots i n context

as you learn new A&P terms

• • • • •

• · bring the 6 new Focus Figures to life and

i nclu d e assessment quest i ons

support the concept maps i n the text without requiring students to submit the i r own concept map for gra d ing

with the k i n d s of quest i ons that will eventua ll y appear on

a licensing exam

The Mastering A&P" Instructor Resources Area includes the fol owing downloadab l e tools for i nstructors who adopt

t h e E leventh Ed it ion for the i r classes:

• NEW! Ready-to-Go Teaching Modules provide teaching tools for 10 challenging topics in A&P

• Customizable PowerPoint® lecture outlines include customizable images and provide a springboard

for lecture prep

• All of the figures, photos, and tables from the text are avai able in JPEG and PowerPoint® formats, in

labeled and unlabeled versions, and with customizable labels and leader lines

• Test bank provides thousands of customizable questions across Bloom's Taxonomy levels Each question is

tagged to chapter learning outcomes that can also be tracked within Mastering A&P® assessments Avail

-able in Microsoft® Word and TestGen® formats

• Animations and videos bring A&P concepts to life and include A&P Flix 3-0 Animations

• A comprehensive Instructor Guide to Text and Media, co-authored by Elaine Marieb and Laura

Steele, includes a detai ed teaching outline for each chapter, along with a wealth of activities, examples,

and analogies that have been thoroughly class-tested with thousands of students

Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual

by Elaine Marieb & Lori Smith Main 12/e ISBN 9780134806358 Cat 13/e ISBN 9780134632339 Fetal Pig 13/e ISBN 9780134806365

A Photographic Atlas for Anatomy

Instructor Guide to Text and Media for Human Anatomy & Physiology 11/e ISBN 9780134787978

Printed Testbank for Human Anatomy

& Physiology 11/e ISBN 9780134788944

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Library of Congre ss Ca tal oging-i n -Publica t io n Data

Names: Marieb, Elaine N i cpon, aut hor I H oehn, Katja, a uth or

Ti tle: Human anatomy & p hysio logy I Elaine N Marieb, R N., Ph D., H o lyoke

Community College, Ka t ja Hoe h n, M D , Ph D , Moun t Royal Universi t y

Othe r titl e.~: H uman anatomy and phys i ology

De sc rip tion: Eleventh ed i tion I H obo ken , New Je r s ey : Pearson Educa ti on,

Inc , [2019 1 I Incl ud e., index

Identifiers: LCCN 20 1 7044428 I ISBN 9780134580999 ( S t uden t ed i tion) I I SBN

'i> • Pearson www. pe arson.com I S BN 1 0: 0 - 13-458099 , 0; I SBN 1 3: 978 · 0 · 1 - 458099 - 9 (S tud ent edit i on)

I SBN I 0: 0 - 13-476299 · I; ISBN 1 3: 978 · 0 - 1 , 476299 - 9 (Ins t ructor 's R eview Copy)

About the Authors

p r ese n t an d pas t , w ho a l ways i n sp ir e u s to

" pus h t he e n ve l ope "

Elaine N Marieb

After receiving her Ph.D in zoology from the University of

Massachusetts at Amherst, Elaine N Marieb joined the faculty

of the Biological Science Division of Holyoke Cornmunity Col

-lege While teaching at Holyoke Community College, where

many of her students were pursuing nursing degrees, she devel

-oped a desire to better understand the relationship between the

scientific study of the human body and the clinical aspects of

the nursing practice To that end, while continuing to teach full

time, Dr Marieb pursued her nursing educat on, which culmi

-nated in a Master of Science degree with a clinical specialization

in gerontology from the University of Massachusetts It is this

experience that has informed the development of the unique per

spective and accessibility for which her publications are known

Dr Marieb has given generously to provide opportuni

-ties for students to further their education She funds the E.N

Katja Hoehn

Dr Katja Hoehn is a professor in the Department of Biology at

Mount Royal University in Calgary, Canada Dr Hoehn's first

love is teaching Her teaching excellence has been recognized by

several awards during her 24 years at Mount Royal University

These include a PanCanadian Educational Technology Faculty

Award ( L 999), a Teaching Excellence Award from the Students'

Association of Mount Royal (200 I), and the Mount Royal Dis

-tinguished Faculty Teaching Award (2004)

Dr Hoehn received her M.D (with Dist nction) from the

University of Saskatchewan, and her Ph.D in Pharrnacology

from Dalhousie University In 199 L, the Dalhousie Medical

Research Foundation presented her with the Max Forman (Jr.)

Prize for excellence in rnedical research During her Ph.D and

postdoctoral studies, she also pursued her passion for teaching

by presenting guest lectures to first- and second-year medical

students at Dalhousie University and at the University of Calgary

Dr Hoehn has been a contributor to several books, written

nurnerous research papers in Neuroscience and Pharmacology,

Marieb Science Research Awards at Mount Holyoke College, which promotes research by undergraduate science majors, and has underwritten renovation of the biology labs in Clapp Labora-

tory at that college Dr Marieb also contributes to the University

of Massachusetts at Amherst, where she provided funding for reconstruction and instnrmentat on of a cutting-edge cytology research laboratory Recognizing the severe national shortage

of nursing faculty, she underwrites the Nursing Scholars of the Future Grant Program at the university

In 2012 and 2017, Dr Marieb gave generous philanthropic

support to Florida Gulf Coast University as a Jong-term ment in education, research, and training for healthcare and human services professionals in the local community In honor

invest-of her contributions, the university is now home to the Elaine Nicpon Marieb College of Health and Human Services

and has co-authored the previous four editions

of this textbook For many years, she has also reviewed and authored

electronic media that accompanies Pearson anatomy and physiology books

Following Dr Marieb's example, Dr Hoehn provides

finan-cial support for students in the form of a scholarship that she lished in 2006 for nursing students at Mount Royal University

estab-Dr Hoehn is also actively involved in the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS) and is a rnember of the American Association of Anatomists When not teaching, she

likes to spend time outdoors with her husband and l\vo sons She also enjoys competing in long-course triathlons, and play-ing Irish flute down at the local pub

• •

Il l

Preface

informat on about anatomy and physiology As educators,

our biggest challenge is to help students focus on mastering

the basic concepts of this field Providing this firm foundation

will help students to become lifelong lean1ers who can crit

-cally evaluate new informat on, connect that information to the

Unifying Themes

Three unifying themes that have helped to organize and set the

tone of this textbook cont nue to be valid and are retained in

this edition These themes are:

Interrelationships of body organ systems This theme emph

a-sizes the fact that nearly all regulatory mechanisms have inter

actions with several organ systems The respiratory system,

for example, cannot carry out i s role of gas exchange in the

prevent the normal delivery of blood throughout the body The

throughout the book help students connect new information

to old information and think of the body as a community of

dynamic parts instead of a number of independent units

Homeostasis Homeostasis is the normal and most desirable

condition of the body Its loss is always associated with past

or present pathology This theme is not included to emphasize

pathological condi ions, but rather to illustrate what happens

in the body "when things go wrong" and homeostasis is lost

Whenever students see a red balance beam symbol

accompa-nied by an associated clinical topic, their understanding of how

the body works to stay in balance is reinforced

Complementarity of structure and function This theme

encourages students to understand the structure of some body

part (ranging from a molecule to an organ) in order to under

stand the function of that structure For example, muscle cells

can produce movement because they are contractile cells

New to the Eleventh Edition

New and augmented elements aim to help learners in the fol

To help students make connections between new and pre

-viously learned material ln order for students to master new concepts, they must link these new concepts with concepts they already understand In this editon, we help them do this by adding:

• Text recall icons ( <Ill ) These icons direct the student back to

the specific pages where a concept was first introduced

• Make Connections questions We've added more of this

type of quest on to the Check Your Understanding review quest ons that follow each module wi hin a chapter To answer these questions, the student must e,nploy concepts learned previously (1nost often in previous chapters)

• New kinds of higher level questions Each chapter now has at least five higher-level questions that require students

to think more deeply, pulling together strands from multiple concepts These questions are clearly identified as mµµq ,

MAKE CONNECTIONS , and M#WIIM que.st i ons

• New summary tables Students have told us that they want

more sumtnary tables In response, 13 new summary tables (t\vo with illustrations) have been added in order to help students see the big picture

To enhance students' visual literacy Anatomy is and has

always been taught principally through images lncreasingly,

whether it be molecular interactions or graphical descriptions of

processes Throughout their future health care careers, students

will need to be able to understand and interpret information pre

-sented visually In this edition, we help them do this by:

• Adding new Focus figures Focus figures are illustrations

that use a "big picture" layout and dramat c art to guide the

student through difficult physiological processes in a step

-by-step way Our previous Focus figures have been a hit

with both students and instructors [n response to requests

for additional Focus figures, we are pleased to present six

think that they understand an illustration simply by look

-ing at it, but to truly comprehend an illustration and cement

i s concepts requires a more active learning approach For

this reason we now include at least one higher-level review

question within each chapter that requires a student either to

draw an illustration or to add to an existing diagram

• Adding questions about illustrations To help students

practice their visual literacy skills, we have added 47 new

Check Your Understanding questions that include an illu

s-tration as part of the question Some of these are as simple

as labeling exercises, but many require more advanced

interpretation

• Updating art to improve its teaching effectiveness As

always, this is a major part of the revision Today's students

are accustomed to seeing sophisticated photoreal st cal ly

rendered images However, many students are not adept at

extracting, and thinking critically about, the relevant in

for-mation contained in such illustrations With this in mind we

cont nue to refine and update our illustrat ons as students'

needs change, improving their abiity to teach important

concepts In many cases we have added blue "instructor's

voice" text within the figure to guide a student through it,

replacing much of the more remote figure legend In addi

-t on, new photos were painstakingly chosen and labeled to

enhance the learning process

• Adding new illustrations to existing tables and adding

new illustrated tables Students find illustrated tables par

-ticularly effective because they provide a visual cue that

helps the,n remember a topic [n this edition, we have added

illustrations to two tables and added two new illustrated

tables

• Adding in-line figures These are small (less than a h

alf-column wide) illustrations or photos strategically located

within the text that discuss the concept they illustrate

This edition now has 31 such in-l ne figures, most of them

newly added

To help students clinically apply what they have learned

• Updated Homeostatic Imbalance features Many of the

Homeostatic Imbalance features have been updated and

relevant photos have been added to so,ne All have been

reviewed for accuracy and relevancy In addition, the updated

• Updated Clinical Case Studies in Chapters S-29 with

+ NCLEX - STYLE

added new questions The end-of-chapter

Preface v

review questions, which are now organized into three

culminate in a clinical case study that allows students to

apply some of the concepts they have learned to a clinical scenario These case studies have been extensively revised and each case study has t\vo quest ons that are similar in

• New clinically relevant photos We have added or updated

a number of photos that have clinical relevance (procedures,

conditions, etc.) that will help students apply what they are

reading to real-life situations and to their future careers

[n this edition, certain chapters have received the bulk

can see in the Highl ghts of New Content (below), these are

Chapters 2-4, 9, and 27-29

As in the previous edition, we have taken painstaking care

to ensure that almost all the text and the associated art are ered on the same two-page spread Although this sounds like a

usual I y been achieved by other textbooks We make this effort

because it is invaluable to student learning to not have to flip

not ce the appearance of new icons referencing MasteringA&P®

interspersed within the text This guides students to go to the

relevant on-l ne activities to supplement their learning

Other High l ights of New Content

Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation

• New Figure l l illustrates complementarity of structure and function

and added five new photos

and about "wrong site surgery."

Chapter 2 Chemistry Comes Alive

• New figures illustrate triglyceride structure (2 l 6); the

difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (2.17); phospholipids (2 l 8); and protein functions (2.20)

(dissociation of salt in water) teach more effectively

• New summary tables reinforce information about chemical bonds (Table 2.2) and about macromolecules and their

Chapter 3 Cells: The Living Units

• Added Focus Figure 3.1 about the plasma membrane, and

improved clarity; updated and reorganized discussion of

autophagy and apoptosis

•

V I Preface

(Figure 3.20)

• Improved teaching effect veness of Figures 3.5 (diffusion),

3.17 (processing and distribut on of newly synthesized

pro-teins), and 3.30 (stages of transcription)

• New informat on about telomeres in cancer cells

• New Homeostatic Imbalance feature about progeria

Chapter 4 Tissue: The Living Fabric

• New images of ci ia show the difference between tran

smis-sion and scanning electron microscopy (Figure 4.2)

• New in-line figure illustrates apical and basal surfaces of

epithelial cells

• Revised art for epithelial and connective t ssue for clarity

(Figures 4.4 and 4.11)

• New Figure 4.5 shows how exocrine and endocrine glands

differ, and new Figure 4.10 gives an overview of the cl

• Updated A Closer Look feature about cancer

Chapter 5 The lntegumentary System

• New illustrated summary table comparing cutaneous glands

(Table 5.1)

• Updated informat on about skin color and disease states

• Updated Homeostat c Imbalance features about hirsut sm

and about hair loss

• New Homeostatic Imbalance feature about nail changes

with disease

• Updated statist cs for and treatment of melanoma, with new

photo (Figure 5.1 lc)

Chapter 6 Bones and Skeletal Tissues

• New summary Table 6.1 compares carti age and bone tissue

• New photos of an osteoclast (Figure 6.7); of a femur in

(Figure 6.3); and of a section of a flat bone (skull bone)

(Figure 6.4 top)

• Extensive revision of Figure 6.12, which teaches bone growth

at epiphyseal plates, including new X ray to show epiphyseal

plates, and new photomicrograph of epiphyseal cartilage

• Updated informat on about bone remodel ng, hormonal

regulat on of bone growth, and osteoporosis

Chapter 7 The Skeleton

• New drawings to illustrate the locat on of the true and false

pelves, and the pelvic inlet and outlet (Figure 7.33)

• Updated Homeostat c Imbalance features about pes plan us

(flat feet) and about developmental dysplasia of the hip

• New photos of birnalleolar fracture (Figure 7.35) and of

cleft l p and palate (Figure 7 39)

Chapter 8 Joints

• New Homeostatic Imbalance feature about shoulder

dislocations

• Revised Figure 8.4 (bursae and tendon sheaths)

• Updated A Closer Look about prostheses Chapter 9 Muscles and Muscle Tissue

• New "Background and Overview" sect on begins the cussion of the mechanisms of excitation and contraction of skeletal muscle, including a new "big picture" overview in Figure 9.7

dis-• New introduction to ion channels with art helps students understand skeletal muscle excitation and contraction

of smooth muscle, including new Figure 9.24 showing calcium sources for smooth muscle contraction

-• Updated discussion of muscle fatigue

• Updated Homeostatic Imbalance feature on Duchenne

mus-cular dystrophy

• Updated A Closer Look feature about anabolic steroids

Chapter 10 The Muscular System

• Revised art about levers for clarity (Figure I 0.2 and I 0.3)

• New cadaver dissection photos show dissection of muscles

of the anterior neck and throat, superficial muscles of the thorax and shoulder in posterior view, and posterior muscles

of the thigh and hip (Figures I 0.9, I 0.14, and I 0.21 )

• New photos illustrate thumb movements and show torticollis Chapter 11 Fundamentals of the Nervous System and

Nervous Tissue

• New Focus Figure 11.4 illustrates postsynaptic potentials and their surnmation

• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 11.12 (coding of

act on potentials for stimulus intensity) and Figure 11.19 (illustrating a reflex)

• New information about synthetic opiates in A Closer L ook,

with new PET scans showing effects of drug addict on

• Added new research findings associat ng synaptic pruning and development of schizophrenia

Chapter 12 The Central Nervous System

• New Figure 12.26 and revised text teach more effectively about the blood brain barrier

• New Figure 12.30 shows spinal cord segment locat on in relation to vertebral column

• New Table 12.2 summarizes spinal cord cross-sectional anatomy

• Updated Homeostatic Imbalance features about hlamic disorders, cerebral palsy, anencephaly, and spina bifida, and about narcolepsy and insomnia, including new use of orexin receptor antagonists to treat insomnia

ypotha-• New type of MRI photo shows fiber tracts in brain and spinal cord

Chapter 13 The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity

• New drawings of nerves of cervical, brachia!, lumbar, and

sacral plexuses show their position in relationship to the tebrae (and hip bone in some cases) (Figures 13.9-13.12)

ver-• New images illustrating the resul s of damage to the ulnar

and radial nerves

• New surnmary table of nerve plexuses (Table 13.7)

• New Homeostatic Imbalance feature and photo about an

abnormal plantar reflex (Babinski 's sign)

• Redrawn figure illustrating crossed-extensor reflex for

improved student understanding

Chapter 14 The Autonomic Nervous System

adrenal medulla

• Clarified section about visceral sensory neurons

• New photo illustrates Raynaud's disease

• Revised Figure 14.5 on the sympathetic trunk for better

teaching effectiveness

Chapter 15 The Special Senses

• Revised Figure 15.2 (the lacrimal apparatus) for better

teaching effectiveness

• New photo of fundus of retina (Figure 15.7)

Chapter 16 The Endocrine System

• New Table 16.1 compares the endocrine and nervous systems

• Figures 16.5 (effects of growth hormone) and 16.9 (synthesis

of thyroid hormone) revised for clarity

• Updated information about diabetes mellitus, Addison's

Chapter 17 Blood

• Updated informat on about anticoagulant medications

• New photo shows petechiae resulting from thrombocytope

-nia (Figure 17 16)

Chapter 18 The Cardiovascular System: The Heart

Chapter 19 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels

• New "drinking straw" analogy and art to explain resistance

according to current understanding, and new text describes

those capillary beds

throughout the vascular tree for greater teaching effectiveness

• New illustrat on of cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis)

(Figure 19.24)

Chapter 20 The Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs

and Tissues

• New illustrated Table 20.1 summarizes key characterist cs

of the major lymphoid organs

• Revised Figure 20.9 with orientation diagrams helps students

locate Peyer's patches (aggregated lymphoid nodules)

• Updated information about lymphatic drainage of the CNS

Preface VII ••

Chapter 21 The Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Body Defenses

immune response and stunmarizes innate and adaptive defenses

• New photo of a macrophage engulfing bacteria

• Revised Figure 21.4 and text on inflammation, Figure 21.6

on complernent activat on, and Figure 21.11 on clonal selection of a B cell for greater teaching effectiveness

Chapter 22 The Respiratory System

• New Figure 22.1 illustrates the four respiratory processes

normal lung tissue (Figure 22.22)

• Updated statistics about lung cancer and trends in asthma prevalence

Chapter 23 The Digestive System

• New Figure 23.25 teaches the enterohepatic circulat on of

anatomy of the small intestine

• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 23.7 (neural

reflex pathways in the gastrointest nal tract) and 23.16

• Updated Homeostatic [mbalance feature about acute dicitis to state that surgery is no longer always the first choice of treatment

appen-Chapter 24 Nutrition, Metabolism, and Energy Balance

• New Figure 24.24 shows the size and composit on of various l poproteins

• [mproved teaching effectiveness of Figure 24.21 (insulin effects during the postabsorptive stage)

• Updated Homeostatic lmbalance features with mechanism

individuals with phenylketonuria

• New information about environmental factors that may tribute to the obesity epidemic in A Closer Look

con-• Updated nutritional information about l pids, and updated statist cs about the prevalence of obesity in adults and

chi dren and about the prevalence of diabetes mellitus

Chapter 25 The Urinary System

• New Figure 25.18 shows the medullary osmot c gradient and

interst tial fluid osmolalities in the renal cortex and medulla

• New Table 25.1 sum,narizes the regulat on of glomerular filtration rate

• [mproved teaching effectiveness of Figures 25.9 (blood vessels of the renal cortex), 25.12 (the filtration membrane),

25.15 ( outes for tubular reabsorpt on), and 25.16 (tubular

reabsorpt on of water and nutrients)

• •

V II I Preface

• New pyelogram shows anatomy of kidneys, ureters, and

urinary bladder (Figure 25.23)

• Added Homeostatic [mbalance feature about renal trauma

• Updated Horneostatic [mbalance feature about kidney stones

C hapter 26 F l u i d, Electro l yte, and Acid-Base Balance

• New Figure 26.12 summarizes the body's chemical buffers

• [mproved teaching effectiveness of Figure 26 J (major fluid

compartments of the body), 26.2 (electrolyte composi ion

of blood plasma, interstitial fluid, and intracellular fluid),

and 26.7 (disturbances in water balance)

• Clarified definitions of sensible and insensible water Joss

C hapter 27 Th e R e p roductive System

• This chapter has been extensively updated, revised, and

reorganized Almost every figure has been reconceptualized

and several new figures have been added These changes

have been made for better teaching effectiveness

• New opening rnodule now compares male and female

reproductive system anatomy and physiology and highl ghts

common features, allowing students to make connections

more easily Hornologous structures, patterns of hormone

release, and meiosis are included in this section

• New Figure 27 I illustrates the basic pattern of interactions

along the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis in

both males and females

• The section about rneiosis has been extensively rewritten

to help increase student understanding New in-line figures

help introduce the basic terminology and some of the con

-cepts before meiosis is discussed in detail

• A new big-picture overview of meiosis introduces the major

events before the details of each step are presented

• Figures 27.22 (events of oogenesis) and 27.24 ( egulation

of the ovarian cycle) are extensively revised and updated for

increased teaching effectiveness and accuracy

• New Figure 27 26 depicts the genetic determination of sex

• New photo of sperm surrounding an oocyte (Figure 28.2)

• New Figure 28.5 illustrates implantation of a blastocyst

• New photo of a 22-day embryo illustrates lateral folding (Figure 28.1 Od)

• Figure 28.12 (neurulation and early mesodermal differentiation) revised for clarity

-• New Focus Figure 28.2 (F ocus on Fetal and Newbo r n

C ir c ulation) teaches the special features of fetal circulation and changes that occur in this circulation after birth

• New Table 28 J summarizes the special structures of the fetal circulation, their functions, and their postnatal structure

• Updated information about placental hormone secretion and about the hormonal control of the initiation of labor

• New information about fetal cells that enter the maternal

circulation

• New Homeostatic [mbalance feature about preeclampsia

• Added Punnett square showing X-l nked inheritance

• Figure 29 J (preparing a karyotype) and 29.4 (genotype and phenotype probabilities) revised for clarity

• New photo of a couple with achondroplasia

• Updated information about small noncoding RNAs

• It has become increasingly clear that very few benign traits

in humans follow a simple dominant- ecessive inheritance pattern Tongue rolling, astigmatism, freckles, dimples, phenylthiocarbamide tast ng, widow's peak, and double-jointed thumb were all at one time thought to follow this pattern of inheritance Closer examination has revealed compelling evidence against each of these Consequently, the examples throughout the chapter have changed

Acknowledgments

Producing a new edition of this book is an enonnous

undertaking Let us take you through the steps and intro

-duce you to the people behind the scenes that have helped

make this book what it is Every new edition begins with a revi

-sion plan We'd like to thank all of the students and instruc

-tors who have provided the feedback (gathered by our editorial

team) that forms the basis of this plan Once this plan was in

place, Barbara Price (our text Development Editor) scoured

each chapter This was Barbara's first exposure to the book and

her fresh eyes on the text found opportunities to further clarify

the presentation In addition, she noted places where additional

chunking of the text (such as bulleted lists) would help the stu

-dents Her excellent work has made this text better We incor

-porated her ideas, and reviewer feedback, together with our

own updates and ideas for reorganization of the text and art

Thanks to Patricia Bowne for contributing to the Cl nical Case

Studies and Wendy Mercier for reviewing all of the Case Stud

-ies We also very much appreciate the help of Karen Dougherty,

who used her expertise as a physician and educator to review all

of the Homeostatic Imbalance features and help us revise and

update them

We then laid out each chapter to maintain text-art correlation

before passing the rnanuscript off to Michele Mangelli Michele

wore many different hats during this revision She was both the

Program Manager for the editorial side of things as well as the

Goddess of Production She reviewed the revised manuscript

before she sent it to ace copyeditor Anita Hueftle Anita saved

us on many occasions from public embarrassment by finding our

spelling and grammar errors, our logical lapses, and various other

inconsistencies We can't thank Anita enough for her meticulous

and outstanding work! (Any remaining errors are our fault.)

At the same time the text was in revision, the art program was

going through a similar process This book would not be what it

is without the help of Laura Southworth, our superb Art

Develop-ment Editor Laura's creativity, attention to detail, and her sense of

what will teach well and what won't have helped us immensely

She has worked tirelessly to make our Focus figures and other art

even better Finding good, usable photos is never easy, and we are

grateful for the hard work of Kristin Piljay (Photo Researcher) It

was also a pleasure to work with Jean Lake again, who expertly

juggled the administrative aspects of the art program and kept us all

on track TI1is team ensured that the artists at Imagineering had all

the information they needed to produce beautiful final art products

As the manuscript made the transition from Editorial to

Production, Michelle Mangelli (wearing a different hat-this

one as the Production and Design Manager) took over again

As head honcho and skilled handler of all aspects of produ

c-tion, everyone answered to her from this point on Kudos to our

excellent production coordinator, Karen Gulliver, who did much

of the hands-on handl ng, routing, and schedul ng of the man

-uscript We'd also like to thank Martha Ghent (Proofreader),

Betsy Dietrich (Art Proofreader), Sallie Steele (Indexer), Alicia Elliot (Project Manager at Imagineering), and Cenveo (Com-positor) Izak Paul meticulously read every chapter for scientific accuracy, and we are very grateful for his careful work Thanks also to Gary Hespenheide for his stunning design work on the cover, chapter opening pages, and the text

It was a pleasure to work with Lauren Harp, our Acqu

isi-tions Editor Her extensive knowledge of the needs of both fac

-ul y and students in anatomy and physiology has helped inform

this revision Her enthusiasm for this book is infectious, her

choice for the cover is inspired, and we are delighted to have her

on board! Before Lauren became part of the team, Serina Beau

-parlant, our Editor-in-Chief, stepped up to helm the planning

phase of this revision Fiercely dedicated to making this book

and its associated media resources the best teaching tools that

they can be, Serina has been invaluable in shaping this revision

We deeply appreciate all she has done for us and this book Lauren

and Serina were competently aided by Editorial Assistant

Dapinder Dosanjh (and before her, Nicky Montalvo)

Other members of our team with whom we have less con

-tact but who are nonetheless vital are: Barbara Yien, Director

of Content Development, Stacey Weinberger (our Senior Manu

-facturing Buyer), and Derek Perrigo (our top-notch Market ng

Manager) We appreciate the hard work of our media produ

c-tion team headed by Lauren Chen, Lauren Hill, Laura Toffilnasi,

Sarah Young Dualan, and Cheryl Chi, and also wish to thank

Eric Leaver for his astute observations on certain figures

Kudos to our entire team We feel we have once again pre

-pared a superb textbook We hope you agree

Many people reviewed parts of this text-both professors

and students, either individually or in focus groups-and we

would l ke to thank them Input from the following reviewers

has contributed to the continued excellence and accuracy of

this text and its accompanying MasteringA&P® assignment

options, including Interactive Physiology 2.0:

Matthew Abbott, D es M o i nes Area Com111un i y College

Emily Allen, R owan College at Gloucester Count y

Lynne Anderson, Meridian Com 1 11unit y College

•

I X

x Acknowledgments

David C Ansardi, Calhoun Co1111nunity College

David Babb, West Hill s College Le,noore

College

Charles Benton, Madiso n Area T echn i c al College

Diana Bourke, Co111111unit y College of Alleghen y County

Carol A Britson, University of Mis sissippi

College

Christie Campbell, Ozarks Te c hni c al Com111unit y College

Alexander G Cheroske, Mesa Co111111unit y College-Red

Mountain

Donna Crapanzano, Ston y Br ook Universit y

Colin Everhart, St P etersburg Co1111nunity College

Reza Forough, B ellevue College

Dean Furbish, Wake Te c hnical Com,nunit y College

Marie Gabbard, College of Western Idah o

Peter Gerrnroth, Hillsb orough Community College

Richard Gonzalez-Diaz, Serninole State College of Florida

Pattie S Green, Ta co ,na Co1111nunity College

Mary Beth Hanlin, D es M oines Area Communit y College-Boone

Heidi Hawkins, College of Southern Idah o

Martie Heath-Sinclair, Ha wkeye Com,nunit y College

D.J Hennager, Kirk wood Conununity College

Mark Hollier, Georgia P eri ,n eter College

Mark J Hubley, Prin ce George's Comrnunit y College

Julie Huggins, Arkansas State Universit y

Brian E Jordan, C.S M ott Comrnunity College

Michael Kielb, Eastern Mi c higan University

Marta Klesath, North Carolina State University

Nelson H Kraus, Universit y of Indiana polis

Paul M Lea IV, Northeni Virginia Comrnunit y College

Juanita Limas, Kirk wood Co111111unit y College

Paul Luyster, Tarrant Count y College

Bhavya Mathur, Chattahoo c hee T echnical College

Tiffany Beth McFalls-Smith, Elizabethtown Conununity and

Technical College

Jennifer Menon, Johnson Cou11ty Co1111nunity College

Jaime Mergliano, John Tyler Co111munity College

Sharon Miles, /tawa111ba Conu11u11ity College

Todd Miller, Hunter College ,if CUNY

Louise Millis, North Hennepin Com,nunit y College

Christine Morin, Prince George's Co111111unity College

Qian F Moss, Des Moi11es Area Com ,nunity College

Regina Munro, Chandler-Gilbert Com,nunit y College

Necia Nicholas, Calhoun Co1111nunity College

Maria Oehler, Florida State College-Jacksonville

Betsy Ott, Tyler Junior College

Ellen Ott-Reeves, Blinn College-B,yan

Stephen Page, Co1111nunity College of Balti,nore County &

Townson Universit y

Vikash Patel, Nevada State College

Dennis Pearson, Morton College

Diane Pelletier, Green Ri ver Con11nu11ity College

Jessica Petersen, P ensacola State College

Jason Pienaar, U11iversity of Alaba,na

Becky Pierce, Delta College

Gilbert Pitts, Austin Pea y State University

Renee Prenitzer, Greenville Technical College

Fernando Prince, Laredo Co1111nunity College

Sarah A Pugh, Shelton State Co111munity College

Suzanne Pundt, Universit y of Texas at T y ler

Rolando J Ramirez, The University of Akron

Wendy Rappazzo, Harford Co1111nunity College

Terrence J Ravine, University of South Alaba,na

Christine S Rigsby, Middle Georgia State University

Laura H Ritt, Burlington Cou11t y College

Cynthia Robison, Wallace Co111111unity College

Brian Sailer, Central New Mexico Co111111unit y College

Mark Schn1idt, Clark State Co111111unit y College

Michael W Sipala, Bristol Conununity College

Amy SkibieL Aubut71 U11iversity

Lori Smith, A,nerican River College-Los Rios

Kerry Smith, Oakland Commu11ity College-Auburn Hills

Tom Sobat, I vy Tech Com munity College

Kay Sourbeer, Tidewater Co1111nunity College

Ashley Spring-Beerensson, Easteni Florida State College

Cindy Stanfield, University of South Alaba111a

Laura Steele, I vy Te c h Co,n,nunit y College-Northeast

George A Steer, Jefferson College of Health Scien ces

Michelle Stettner, Meridia11 Co1111nunity College

Acknowledgments

Susan E Tappen, Central New Mexico Co1111nunity College

Dean Thornton, South Georgia State College

Rita A Thrasher, Pensacola State College

Brenda Tondi, George Mason Universit y

Sheela Vemu, Waubonsee Conunu11ity College

•

XI

Khursheed Wankadiya, Central Pi edn1ont Co111111unit y College

Chad Wayne, University of Houston

Kira L Wennstrom, Shoreli11e Co1n1nu11ity College Shirley A Whitescarver, Bluegrass Co1n1nu11ity and Technical

College-KCTCS

John Whitlock, Hillsborough Co1111nunity College

Patricia Wilhelm, Johnson and Wales University

Luann Wilkinson, Marion Tech11ical College

Selwyn A Williams, Miami Dade College Darrellyn Williams, Pulaski Te c hni c al College

Heather Wilson-Ashworth, Utah Valle y University

MaryJo A Witz, Monroe Com,nunit y College

Jackie Wright, South Plains College

James Robert Yount, Brevard Co1111nunity College

We would like to acknowledge the following group who reviewed various iterations of the new Focus figures: Matthew Abbott, David Ansardi, Jake Dechant, Karen Dougherty, Peter Germroth, Gary Glaser, Suzanne Keller, Gilbert Pitts, Terry

Ravine, Michelle Stettner, and Rita Thrasher

We would also like to acknowledge the support of Katja's colleagues at Mount Royal University (Trevor Day, Sarall Hewitt, Tracy O'Connor, Saral1 Orton, Izak Paul, Lorraine Royal, Karen Sheedy, Kartika Tjandra, and Margot Williams); Department Chairs (Ruth Pickett-Seltner and Melanie Rathbum); and Deans (Jeffrey Goldberg and Jonathan Withey) Thanks also to Katja's husband,

Dr Lawrence Haynes, a fellow physiologist who ha~ worked together with Katja and has been involved in all aspects of this revision We would like to thank Katja and Larry's sons, Eric and Stefan Haynes, for putting up with their parents through many revi-sions of this book and for continuing to be an inspiration and a joy

We really would appreciate hearing from you concerning

your opinion-suggestions and constructive criticisms of this text It is this type of feedback that will help us in the next revi-

sion and underlies the continued improvement of this text

Contents

UNIT 1 Organization of the Body

1.1 Form (anatomy) determines function (physiology) 2

1.2 The body's organization ranges from atoms to the entire

organism 4

1.3 What are the requirements for lfe? 5

1.5 Anatomical terms describe body directions, regions and

planes 12

A CLOSER LOOK Medical Imaging: Illuminating the Body 16

1.6 Many internal organs lie in membrane-l ned body

cavities 17

iiM;ili BASIC CHEMISTRY 24

2.1 Matter is the stuff of the universe and energy moves

matter 24

2.2 The properties of an element depend on the structure of

its atoms 25

2.3 Atoms bound together form molecules; different

molecules can make mixtures 28

2.4 The three types of chemical bonds are ionic, covalent, and

hydrogen 31

2.5 Chemical reactions occur when electrons are shared,

gained, or lost 35

1:fij;1fj BIOCHEMISTRY 38

2.6 Inorganic compounds include water, salts, and many acids

and bases 38

2.7 Organic compounds are made by dehydration synthesis

and broken down by hydrolysis 41

2 12 ATP transfers energy to other compounds 55

3 1 Cells are the smal est unit of l fe 61

iiti1;ili PLASMA MEMBRANE 63

3.2 The plasma membrane is a double layer of phosphol pids

with embedded proteins 63

FOCUS FIGURE 3 1 The Plasma Membrane 64

3.3 Passive membrane transport is diffusion of molecules down their concentration gradient 68

3 4 Active membrane transport directly or indirectly uses ATP 73

Focus FIGURE 3 2 Primary Active Transport: The Na+-K+

Pump 74

3.5 Selective diffusion establ shes the membrane

potential 79

3.6 Cell adhesion molecules and membrane receptors allow

the cell to interact with its environment 81

FOCUS FIGURE 3 3 G Proteins 82

1itj;1fj THE CYTOPLASM 83 3.7 Cytoplasmic organelles each perform a special zed

task 83

3.8 Ciia and microvilli are two main types of cellular extensions 90

1:tl , 111 NUCLEUS 91

3.9 The nucleus incl udes the nuclea r envelope , the nucleo l us,

a n d chromatin 91

3 1 0 The ce ll cycle co ns ists of interphase and a mitot i c phase 95

3 1 1 Messenge r R N A c arr ies inst ru ctions from D N A for

b u ilding pro teins 98

3.12 Auto p hagy and proteasomes d i spose of unneeded

o rganelles and p r oteins ; apop tosis d i sposes of unneeded

cells 1 08

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Cells 109

4 T i ssue: The L i ving Fabric 115

4 1 Tissue samp l es are fixed, s liced, and stained fo r

m i croscopy 1 1 7

4 2 Ep ithe l al tissue covers body surfaces, l nes cav i t ies , and

forms g l ands 1 1 7

4 3 Connective t i ssue i s the most abundan t and w idely

d istr i buted tissue i n the body 1 2 5

4 4 Muscle tiss ue is responsible fo r body movement 13 8

4 5 Nervous tissue is a spec i a l ize d tiss ue of the nervous

A CLOSE R LOOK Cancer - The Int i mate Enemy 144

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of T issues 145

UNIT 2 Cove r ing , Support, and Movement of the Body

5 The lntegumentary System 1 50

5 1 The sk in consists of two layers: the epide r m i s and

5.6 Nails are scale - l k e modifications of the ep i de r m is 1 50

5.7 Sweat glands he l p contro l body tem pe r a tu r e, and sebaceous glands sec r ete sebum 1 5 1

5.8 Fi r st and foremost, the sk i n is a barr i er 153

5.9 Sk in cancer and burns a re ma j o r cha l enges to the body 155

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the lnteg umentary System 15 7

SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 158

6 Bones and Skeleta l Tissues 173

6.1 Hyal i ne, e l as tic , and fi bro c ar til age help fo r m the skeleton 174

6.2 Bones perform severa l i mportant functions 175

6.3 Bones are classified by thei r locat i on and shape 175 6.4 The g r oss st r uctu r e of a l l bones consists of compact bone sandwich ing spongy bone 1 75

6.5 Bones develop either by i nt ra me mb ranous o r endochondra l ossific ation 1 84

6.6 Bone r emodeling invol ves bone deposition and

SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 195

7 The Skeleton 199

i:ti;ili THE AXIAL SKELETON 1 99 7.1 The skull consists of 8 cranial bones and 1 4 faci al bones 2 0 1

7.2 The vertebral column is a flexi b le, curved support structu re 2 18

7.3 The thoracic cage is the bony structure of the chest 22 4

i:ti;jfj THE APPEND I CULAR SKELETON 227 7.4 Each pec tor al g ird l e cons i sts of a clavicle and a scapula 22 7

7.5 The uppe r l mb consists of the a rm fo rea r m, and hand 23 0

7.6 The h i p bones attach to the sacrum, fo r m i ng the pelvic

g i rdle 2 35

7.7 The l ower l mb consists of the th igh, leg , and foot 2 40 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Skeleton 245

8.4 Synovia l jo i nts have a fluid-filled joint cav i ty 2 54

FOCUS FIGURE 8 1 Synov i a l J o i nts 262

8.5 F i ve examp l es illust rate the diversity of synov i al joints 264

8.6 Jo i nts a r e easi l y damaged by i njury, inflamm ation, and

degene r ation 272

B ion i c Hu mans 274

9.1 The r e a r e th r ee types of muscle t i ssue 280

9.2 A skeleta l muscle is made up of muscle fibe r s, nerves,

blood vessels, and connective tissues 281

9.3 Ske l etal muscle fibers conta i n calcium - regu l ated molecular

motors 284

9.4 Motor neurons stimulate ske l eta l m us cle fibers to

contract 290

Focus F IGURE 9 1 Events a t the Neuromuscu l a r Ju nction 292

Focus F IGURE 9 2 Exc i tation - Contrac tion Coup l ng 2 94

FOCUS F IGURE 9 3 Cross Br idge Cycle 297

9.5 Temporal summation and mo to r un i t r ec r uitment allow

smooth, graded ske l etal muscle cont ra ct i ons 298

9.6 ATP fo r muscle contraction is produced ae r obically o r

anae r ob i cally 303

9.7 The force, ve l ocity, and du r ation of ske l etal muscle

contractions a r e determ i ned by a va r iety of factors 306

9.8 H ow does skeletal muscle respond to exerc i se? 309

9.9 Smooth muscle i s nonstriated i nvo l un ta ry m us cle 310

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Muscles 316

Anabo lic Stero i ds? 3 1 7

SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 3 1 8

10.1 For any move men t , mus cles can act i n one of th r ee ways 324

10.2 How are ske l etal muscles named? 324 FOC U S FIG UR E 1 0 1 Muscle Act i on 325

10.3 Fasc i cle a rr angements help determ i ne muscle shape and

force 326 10.4 Muscles acting with bones form l ever systems 327 10.5 A muscle's o r ig i n and i nsert i on determine its ac tion 332

Ta b le 1 0 1 Muscles of the Head, Part I: F ac i a l Express i on 333

Table 1 0.2 Muscles of the Head, Part II: Masticat i on and Tongue Movement 336

Table 1 0.3 Muscles of the Ante r i o r Neck and Throat:

Swallow i ng 338

Table 1 0 4 Muscles of the Neck and Vertebral Co lu mn : Head Movements and T runk Extens ion 340

Table 1 0.5 Deep Muscles of the Thorax : B r eath i ng 344

Table 1 0.6 Muscles of the Abdom i nal Wall : Trunk Movements and Compress i on of Abdom inal Visce r a 346

Table 1 0.7 Muscles of the Pelvic F l oor and Per i neum: Support

of Abdom ino pe l v i c Organs 348

Table 10.8 Superficial Muscles of the An terior and Pos te r io r

Tho r ax: Movements of the Scapu l a and Ar m 350

Table 1 0 9 Muscles Cross i ng the Shou lde r Jo int: Movements of

Table 1 0 14 Muscles Cross i ng the H i p and Knee J o i nts:

Movements of the Th i gh and L eg 367

Table 1 0 1 5 Muscles of the L eg : Movements of the Ank le and Toes 374

Table 1 0 1 6 Intr i ns i c Muscles of the Foot: Toe Movement and

Ar ch Support 380

Table 1 0 1 7 Summary : Ac t i ons of Muscles Ac ting on the Thigh ,

L eg, and Foot 384

UNIT 3 Regulation and Integration of the Body

1 1 1 The nervous system rece i ves, integrates , and responds to

info r ma t i on 391

1 1 2 Neurog l ia support and ma i nta i n neurons 392

1 1 3 Neurons a r e the structu r al units of the nervous system 394

1 1 4 The resting me mb r ane potential depends on d ifferences

in i on concentrat i on and pe r mea b i ity 400

FOCUS FIGURE 11 1 Res t i ng Memb ran e P otentia l 402

1 1 5 Graded potentials are b r i ef short-distance signa l s w i thi n

a neuron 404

1 1 6 Ac t i on poten t i a l s are brief, long-d i stance signals within a

neuron 405

FOCUS FIGURE 11.2 Ac tion Potential 406

1 1 7 Synapses transm i t s i gnals between neurons 4 12

FOCUS FIGURE 11.3 Chemica l Synapse 415

1 1 8 Postsynap tic potent i a l s excite or i nhibit the r eceiving

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of N eu r ons 428

A CLOSER LOOK P leas ure Me, P l easure Me ! 429

1 2 1 Folding du r i ng deve l opment determ i nes the com p l ex

structure of the adult brain 435

1 2.2 The ce r eb ra l hem is pheres cons i st of cortex, wh i te matte r,

and the basa l nucle i 439

1 2.3 The d ienceph a l on i ncludes the tha l amus, hypothalamus,

and epithalamus 447

1 2.4 The bra i n stem consists of the m i dbrain, pons and

medulla ob l ongata 450

1 2.5 The ce r ebe l um ad justs moto r output, ensu r ing

coo r d i na t i on and ba l ance 454

1 2.6 Functional bra i n systems span multip l e bra i n

structures 456

1 2 7 The i nte r connecte d st r uctu r es of the brain allow h i ghe r

men t a l functions 458

1 2 8 The bra in i s protec te d by bone, meninges, cerebrospina l

flu i d, and the blood brain barr ier 464

1 2 9 Brain i njuries and diso r de r s have devas t at i ng consequences 468

1 2 1 0 The sp i na l cor d i s a r eflex cente r and conduction

pa thw ay 470

12 11 Neurona l pa thw ays carry sensory and motor i nformation

to and from the brain 4 76

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Centra l Nervous Sys tem 482

i:fi"iiili SENSORY RECEPTORS AND SENSATION 490

1 3 1 Sensory r ecepto r s are activated by changes in the i nterna l

or exte rnal environment 490

1 3 2 Recep to r s, ascending pathways, and ce r eb ra l co r tex process sensory i nformation 493

i:fi"iijfj TRANSMISSION LINES: NERVES AND

1 3 3 Nerves are cord l k e bund l es of axons that con duc t sensory and moto r i mp ulses 496

1 3 4 There are 12 pairs of crania l nerves 498

1 3 5 31 pa i rs of sp i nal nerves i nnervate the body 507

1:fi"j:1s1 MOTOR ENDINGS AND MOTOR ACTIVITY 51 7

1 3 6 Per i phe r a l moto r endings connect nerves to thei r effectors 517

1 3 7 There are three levels of motor control 517

i:fii:ili REFLEX ACTIVITY 5 1 9

1 3 8 The re fle x arc enables rap id and pred i ctab l e responses 519

1 3 9 Sp ina l r eflexes are somat i c reflexes mediated by the spinal cord 520

FOC US FIGURE 13 1 Stretch Reflex 522

DEVE L OPMENTAL AS PECTS of the Per i phe r a l Nervous Sys te m 526

1 4 1 The ANS d iffe rs from the somatic nervous system i n th a t

i t can stimulate or i nhibit i ts effectors 532

14 6 Acetylchol i ne and no r ep i neph r ine a r e the major ANS

neurotransmitters 543

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the ANS 548

1 5 Th e Sp ecia l S e n ses 533

i:ti"Uii THE EYE AND VISION 5 5 4

15 3 Pho totransducti on begins when light act i vates v i sual

1:f;j;jfj THE CHEMICAL SENSES: SMELL AND TASTE 57 5

15 6 Dissolved chem i ca l s are detected by r ecepto r cells in taste

1:(;j;1i1 THE EAR: H EARi NG AND BALANCE 5 80

16.4 Three types of stimuli cause ho r mone release 607 16.5 Cells r espond to a ho r mone if they have a r ecepto r fo r that hormone 608

16.6 The hypothalamus controls r elease of ho r mones from the pituitary gland in two differen t ways 609

FOCUS FIGURE 16 1 Hypotha l amus and Pitu i tary

16.7 The thy r o i d g land cont r o l s metabolism 617 16.8 The parathyroid glands are primary r egu l ators of blood

16.9 The ad r enal glands produce hormones invo l ved i n

16.10 The pinea l g l and secretes me l atonin 627

FOCUS FIGURE 16 2 Stress and t he Adrenal Gland 628

16.11 The pancreas , gonads, and most other organs secrete

17.7 Transfusion can rep l ace lost b l ood 663 17.8 Blood tests give i ns i ghts i nto a patient's health 666

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Blood 666

1 8 The Cardiovascular System :

The Heart 670

the pu lmo nary and system i c cir cu i ts 67 1

1 8.2 Hea rt valves make blood flow i n one direct i on 679

1 8.3 B l ood flows from a trium to vent r icle , and then to e i ther

the l ungs o r the res t of the body 680

FOCUS FIGURE 18 1 B l ood F l ow th r ough the He art 68 1

1 8.5 Pacemaker cells tr i gge r a ction potenti a ls througho u t

the heart 686

1 8.6 The ca r d i ac cycle describes the mechanica l events

associated w i th blood flow throug h the heart 692

1 8.7 St r oke vo l ume and heart rate are regu l ated to a l ter

ca r d i ac output 696

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Heart 700

1 9 The Cardiovascular System :

B l ood Ve s sels 706

iitiliiii BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 707

1 9.1 Most blood vessel walls have three laye r s 709

res i sta nee vessels 7 1 0

1 9.3 Capi l aries are exchange vesse l s 7 10

1 9,,4 Ve i ns are b l ood reservoi r s that re turn bloo d towa rd the

hea r t 7 1 2

vessels 7 1 4

1:f;);1fj PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION 7 1 4

1 9.6 B l ood flows from h i gh to l ow p ressu r e agains t

res i sta nee 7 1 4

1 9.7 B l ood pr essure decreases as blood f l ows from a rte r i es

th rough cap i lla r ies and into ve i ns 7 1 6

1 9.8 B l ood pr essure is regu l a te d by short- and long - te r m

controls 7 1 8

1 9.9 In tr i ns i c and ext r i ns i c cont r o l s determine blood flow

th rough t i ssues 725

1 9.10 Slow blood f l ow th r ough capilla ries pro motes d iffusion

of nutrients and gases, and bu l k flow of flu i ds 730

FOCUS FIGURE 19 1 Bu l k F l ow across Cap i l ary Wa l s 732

•• Con t ents XVII

i:tii:ili CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS: BLOOD VESSELS OF THE BODY 734

19.11 The vesse l s of the systemic c i rculat i on tr anspo rt b lood to

a l l body t i ssues 735 Table 19.3 Pu lmona ry and System i c C i rculat i ons 736 Table 19.4 The Ao rta and Majo r A rteries of the Sys tem i c

C ircu l at i on 738 Table 19.5 Ar ter i es of the He ad and Neck 7 40 Table 19.6 Ar ter i es of the Upper Limbs and Thor ax 7 42 Table 19.7 Ar ter i es of the Abdo men 744

Table 19.8 Ar ter i es of the Pelvis and L owe r Limbs 7 48 Table 19.9 The Venae Cavae and the Major Veins of the

Systemic Circu l at i on 750 Table 19.10 Ve i ns of t he Head and Neck 752 Table 19 11 Ve i ns of t he Upper L i mbs and Thorax 754 Table 19 12 Ve i ns of t he Abdomen 756

Table 19 13 Ve i ns of t he Pe lvis and Lower Limbs 758

DEVELOPMENTAL AS PECTS of Blood Vessels 759

A CLO SER LOOK Atheros cle r os i s? Ge t Ou t the Card i ovascular

D r ano 760

2 0 The Lymphatic System and

Lymphoid Organs and Tissues 766

20.1 The l ymphat i c system includes l ymphat i c vessels, ly m ph ,

and lymph nodes 767

20.2 L ymphoid cells and t i ssues are found in lymphoi d o r gans

b l ood cells 773

DEVELOPMENTA L AS PECTS of the Lymphatic System and

L ymphoid Organs and T i ssues 776

21 The Immune System: Innate and

Adaptive Body Defen s es 781

i:tii;iii INNATE DEFENSES 782 21.1 Su rface barr i e r s act as t he first l ine of defense to keep

i nvaders out of the body 782

•••

2 1.2 In n a te inte r n a l de fenses are cells and chemica l s that act

as the second l ine of de fense 783

1:fij;1fj ADAPTIVE DEFENSES 790

2 1.3 Ant i gens are substances that t ri gger the bo dy 's adaptive

defenses 791

2 1.4 Ba n d T lymphocytes and a nt i gen - p r esent i ng cells are

cells of the adaptive i mmune response 792

2 1.5 In humera l i mmunity , antibod i es a r e p roduced that

ta r get extrace l ula r antigens 796

2 1.6 Cellu l ar i mmun i ty consists of T l ymphocytes that d i rect

ada ptive i mmunity o r attack cell ula r ta r gets 801

Focus FIGURE 2 1 1 An Exa m p l e of a Pr i mary I mmune

Res ponse 808

2 1.7 Insu ff i c i ent o r ove r ac t i ve i mmune respo nses c r eate

p r oblems 8 11

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Im mune Sys tem 8 1 4

2 2 The Respiratory System 818

iitUii FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY 820

22.1 The uppe r resp i r atory system wa r ms , humidifies, and

fi l te rs a i r 820

22.2 The lowe r r espi r atory system cons i sts of conduct i ng and

resp i ratory zone structu r es 824

22.3 Each mu lti l obed lung occupies its own p l eu r a l cavity 833

1i@;1fj RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY 834

22.4 Volume changes cause p r essu r e changes, which cause a i r

22.7 Oxygen is tr anspo r ted by hemog l ob i n, and c ar bon

d i oxide is transporte d i n three d ifferent ways 847

Focus FIGURE 22 1 The Oxygen- Hemoglo b in D issociation

Cu r ve 848

22.8 Resp i ra tory cente r s i n the b r a in stem control b r eathing

with i nput from chemorecepto r s and higher b r a i n

2 3 The Digestive Sy s tem 868

iiM;ili OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 869

23.1 What major p r ocesses occur dur ing d i gestive system act i v i ty? 870

23.2 The G I tr ac t has four layers and i s usua l y surrounded by

23.4 I ngest i on occurs only at the mou th 876

23.5 The pha r ynx and esophagus move food from the mouth

1:fii;1l1 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 9 1 2

23.10 D i gestion hy dro l yzes foo d i nto nut r ients that a r e

absorbed ac r oss the gut epithe l um 9 1 2 23.11 How i s each type of nut r ient processed? 9 1 2

DEVELOPMENTAL AS PEC TS of the Digestive Sys tem 9 1 8

24.2 Most v i tam i ns act as coenzymes; m i nera l s h ave many

r oles i n the body 93 1

24.5 L i pid metabolism is key fo r l ong -term energy storage and

re lease 946

24.7 Ene rgy i s stored i n the absorptive state and released in

the postabso rp t ive state 949

A CLOSER LOOK Obesity: Magi ca l Solu t i on Wanted 958

iitUli ENERGY BALANCE 960

metabo l ic rate 96 2

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Nu t rition and Metabol sm 968

25.1 The kidneys have th r ee dist i nct r eg i ons and a r i ch blood

supp l y 975

key processes of ur ine for mati on 983

25.4 U rine fo r mati on, step 1: The g l ome r uli make filtr ate 984

25.5 U rine for mat i on, step 2 : Most of the fi ltrate is reabsorbed

into the blood 989

25.6 U rine for mat i on, step 3: Certa i n substances a r e secreted

into the filtrate 994

regu l ate urine concentration and volume 995

25.8 Renal funct i on is eva l uated by ana l yz i ng bl ood and

u r i ne 1 000

25.9 The urete r s, b ladde r , and ureth ra t r ansport, store, and

eliminate urine 1 002

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the U r i nary System 1 006

2 6 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base

Balance 1 o 12

26.1 Body fluids consist of water and solutes in th r ee main

compartments 1 O 1 3

27.1 The ma le and fema le r ep r oduct i ve systems sha r e common featu r es 1 042

i:fii:ili ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 1 047

scr otum 1 048 27.3 Sperm trave l from the testes to the body exter i o r th r ough

a system of ducts 10 50

anterior pitu itary, and testicula r ho r mones 1 059

i:fii:ili ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 1 060

27.9 I mmature eggs develop in follicles i n the ovar i es 1 061 27.1 0 The fema l e duct system includes the uter ine tubes,

uterus, and vagina 106 2 27.11 The external gen ita l ia of the femal e i nclude those

structu res that l e externa l to the vagina 1067

27.15 Fema l e reproductive f uncti on is regulated by hypotha l am i c,

an te r io r pi tu i tary , and ovar ian hormones 1 0 74

27.16 The female sexual response i s mo r e d i verse and complex

than that of ma l es 1 078

i:ti;ilJ SEXUALLY T RANSM I TTED INFECTIONS 1 080

27.17 Sexua ll y transmitted infections cause reproductive and

28.2 Embryoni c deve l opment begins as the zygote undergoes

cleavage and fo r ms a b l as tocyst en r oute to the

u te r us 1 097

28.3 Implanta tion occu r s when the embryo burr ows into the

u te r ine wall, t riggering placen t a formation 1098

28.4 Embryoni c events in clu de gast r u la fo rmation and tissue

diffe r entiation, which a r e followe d by rap id growth of

the fetus 1 1 02

Focus FIGURE 28.2 Fetal and Newbo r n C i r culation 1 10 8

28.5 Dur ing p r egnancy, the mo the r undergoes ana tom ic al,

phys i ological , and metabo l ic changes 1 1 1 2

28.6 The three stages of la bo r are the di lat ion , expu l sion, and

p l acen tal stages 1 1 14

28.7 An infant's ext r aute r ine ad jus t ments include t ak ing the

fi r st breath and closure of vascul ar shunts 1 1 1 6

28.8 Lac tat ion is m i k secret i on by the ma m mary glands in response to p r o lac ti n 1 1 1 6

A CLOSER LOOK Contraception: To Be or Not To Be 1118 28.9 Ass is ted rep r oductive techno logy m ay help an infert ile couple have offspr ing 1 1 1 9

2 9 Heredi ty 1124 29.1 Genes are the vocabulary of genet i cs 112 5 29.2 Gene tic variation results from independen t assortment , cross ing over , and random ferti l iz ation 1 126

29.3 Seve r al patterns of inhe r i tance have l ong been known 1128

29.4 Envi r onmen t a l facto rs may influence o r overr i de gene expression 1131

29.5 Fac to r s othe r th an nuclear DNA sequence can dete r m i ne inhe r it ance 1 1 3 1

29.6 Gene t ic screening is used to de tect genetic disorders 1 1 33

Appen d ices Answers Append ix A - 1

A T he Metric Sys t em A - 18

B Func t ional Groups in Organic Mo l ecu les A - 20

C T he Amino Acids A -21

D T wo Impo r tant Metabolic Pathways A - 22

E P eriod i c Tab l e of t he E lements A - 25

F Re f erence Va l ues for Selected B lood and Urine Studies A -26

G l ossary G - 1 Pho t o and Il lustration Credits C - 1

Index 1 - 1

The Human Body:

An Orientation

I n this chapter, you w ill learn that

Anatomy and physiology provide a framework that helps us understand the human body

What are anatomy ana physiology, and

how are they related?

What are the re(!uirements for life?

CAREER CONNECTION

O Watch the chapter a video content is to learn used how

in a real health care setting

Go to Mastering A&P®> Study Area >

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'

Bo d y cavit i es a n d membra n es

Welcome to the study of one of the most fascinating

subjects possible-your own body Such a study is not only

highly personal, but t rnely as well We get news of some cal advance almost daily To appreciate emerging discoveries in

medi-molecular genetics, to understand new techniques for detect ng

and treating disease, and to make use of published facts on how

to stay healthy, you'll find it helps to learn about the workings

of your body If you are preparing for a career in the health ences, the study of anatomy and physiology has added rewards because it provides the essential foundation for your clinical experiences

sci-In this chapter we define and contrast anatomy and logy and discuss how the human body is organized Then we

physio-revie\v needs and processes common to all living organisms

Three essential concepts-the c omple,nentarit y of structure and function , the hierarchy of structural organi z ation , and

ho,neostas i s-wi ll unify and form the bedrock for your study

of the human body And finally you'll learn the language of anatorny-terminology that anatomists use to describe the body and its parts

1

2 U N I T 1 Organization of the Body

Form (anatomy) determines function (physiology)

Learning Outcomes

II- D efi n e a n a tom y a nd phys i o l ogy a nd de sc r i b e t he ir

subdivi si on s

II- Expl a i n t he p rin ciple o f com pl emen t arity

Two complementary branches of science-anatomy and

physiology-provide the concepts that help us to understand the

human body Anatomy studies the structure of body parts and

their relationships to one another Anatomy has a certain appeal

because it is concrete Body structures can be seen, felt, and

exaJnined closely You don't need to imagine what they look like

Physiology concerns the function of the body, in other

words, ho\v the body parts work and carry out their life

-sustaining activities When all is said and done, physiology is

explainable only in tenns of the underlying anatomy

For simplicity, when we refer to body structures and physi

-ological values (body temperature, heart rate, and the like), we

will assume that we are talking about a healthy young r eferen c e

1na11 weighing about 155 lb [70 kilograms (kg)) or a healthy

young refere11ce wo 1 na11 weighing about 125 lb (57 kg)

Although we use the reference values and common direc

-tional and regional tenns to refer to all human bodies, you know

from observing the faces and body shapes of people around

you that we humans differ in our external anatomy The same

kind of variability holds for internal organs as well In one per

son, for exlllllple, a nerve or blood vessel may be somewhat out

of place, or a small muscle may be missing Nonetheless, well

over 90o/ o of all structures present in any human body match the

textbook descriptions We seldom see extreme anatomical vari

-ations because they are incompatible with life

Topics of Anatomy

Anatomy is a broad field with many subdivisions, each providing

enough information to be a course in itself Gross, or 1nacr

o-scopic, anato,uy is the study of large body structures visible

to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys Indeed,

the term anato , n y (from Greek, rneaning "to cut apart") relates

most closely to gross anatomy because in such studies preserved

anirnals or their organs are dissected (cut up) to be examined

Gross anatomy caJ1 be approached in different ways

• In regional anatomy, all the structures (rnuscles, bones, blood

vessels, nerves, etc.) in a particular region of the body, such as

the abdomen or leg, are examined at the same time

• In systemic anatomy (sis-tem'ik),* body structure is studied

system by system For example, when studying the cardio

-vascular system, you would examine the heart and the blood

vessels of the entire body

• Another subdivision of gross anatomy is surface anatomy,

the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying

skin surface You use surface anatomy when you identify the

bulging muscles beneath a bodybuilder's skin, and cl nicians

use it to locate appropriate blood vessels in which to feel

pulses and draw blood

Microscopic auato,uy deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye For rnost such studies, exceedingly thin

slices of body tissues are stained and mounted on glass sl des to

be exarnined under the microscope Subdivisions of microscopic

anatomy include cytology (si-tol'o-je), which considers the cells

of the body, and histology (his-tol'o-je), the study of tissues

Developmental auato,uy traces structural changes that

occur throughout the life span En1bryology (em"bre-ol'o-je), a

subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns developmental

changes that occur before birth Some highly special zed branches of anatomy are used

primarily for medical diagnosis and scient fic research For

example, pathological anato111 y studies structural changes caused by disease R adiographic anato111 y studies internal

structures as visualized by X- ay images or specialized scan

-ning procedures

Studying Anatomy

One essential tool for studying anatomy is a mastery of an

a-tomical terminology Other tools are observat on, manipu

la-tion, and, in a living person, palpat i on (feeling organs with

your hands) and aus c ultat i on (listening to organ sounds with a

stethoscope) A simple exlllllple illustrates ho\v some of these

tools work together in an anatomical study Let's assume that your topic is freely movable joints of the body In the laboratory, you will be able to observe an animal

joint, noting how its parts fit together You can work the joint

(111anipulate i ) to determine its range of motion Using a11a

-to 1 nical termi110/og y , you can name its parts and describe how

they are related so that other students (and your instructor) will

have no trouble understanding you The list of word roots (at

the back of the book) and the glossary will help you with this special vocabulary

Although you will make most of your observations with the

naked eye or wi h the help of a microscope, medical technogy has developed a number of sophisticated tools that can

ol-peer into the body without disrupt ng it See A Closer Look

on pp 16-17

Topics of Physiology

Like anatomy, physiology has many subdivisions Most of thern

consider the operation of specific organ systems For example, renal physiology concerns kidney function and urine produc-

tion Neurophysiology explains the workings of the nervous system Cardiovascular physiology exlllllines the operation of

the heart and blood vessels While anatomy provides us with a

static image of the body's archi ecture, physiology reveals the body's dynamic and animated workings

Physiology often focuses on events at the cellular or molecular level This is because the body's abil ties depend on those

-of its individual cells, and cells' abi ities ultimately depend on

the chemical reactions that go on within them Physiology also

rests on principles of physics, which help to explain electrical

The sharp edges of i nc i so r s

(structure) make them ideal for

cutting l ike sc i ssors (function)

Ch apt er 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 3

Fig ur e 1 1 Compl e m e ntarity of structure and funct i on

currents, blood pressure, and the way muscles use bones to cause body movements,

Complementarity of Structure and Function

inseparable because function always reflects structure That is, what a structure can do

depends on its specific fonn This key concept is called the pr i n ci p l e of c o mp l e m e n t

a-rit y o f s tr u ctur e a n d fun c tion

mineral deposits Blood flows in one direction through the heart because the heart

teeth reflect their different actions, as shown in Fig ur e 1 1 Throughout this book, we

accompany a description of a structure's anatomy with an explanation of i s function,

Check Your Understanding

3 t4144H Use the word root definitions located at the back of this book to define each of

- - - F or answ ers , see A nsw e r s Appe ndi x

4 U N I T 1 Organization of the Body

from atoms to the entire organism

Learning Outcomes

II- Name the d i fferent leve l s of struct ur a l organizat i on that

make up the hum an body, and expla in their relationsh i p s

II- List the 1 1 organ systems of the body, identify their

each system

The human body has many levels of structural organization

( Figure 1.2) The simplest level of the structural hierarchy is

the chemical level, which we study in Chapter 2 At this level,

ato 1 ns, tiny bui ding blocks of matter, combine to form ,nol

-ecules such as water and proteins Molecules, in turn, associate

in specific ways to form organelles that are the basic

compo-nents of cells Cells are the smallest units of living things We examine the cellular level in Chapter 3 All cells share some

common functions, but individual cells vary widely in size and

shape, reflecting their unique functions in the body

The simplest living creatures are single cells, but in complex organisms such a~ human beings, the hierarchy continues on to

the tissue level Tissues are groups of similar cells that have a

cornrnon function The four basic tissue types in the lnunan body

Smoo th mu sc l e cell

Cellu l ar le vel

Ce ll s are made up of mo l ecu l es

Smoo t h mus cl e t iss ue

T is sue leve l

T iss ues consist of s i m i ar types of cells

B l ood vessel (o r gan )

Organ l eve l

r Smooth m uscle t i ss u e

./ , , - Connective ti ssue

Organs a r e made up of d iff e r en t types of ti ssues

T he h u man organ is m i s made u p of ma ny

organ sys t ems

Organ systems consist of d iffe r ent

o r gans that work to ge t her c l ose ly

Figure 1 2 Levels o f structural organ i zat i on Compone nt s of the ca r d i ovascula r system are

used to i llus tr a t e t he l eve l s o f struc tu ral orga n iza t ion i n a human being

are epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and ner

-vous tissue

Each tissue type has a characteristic role in the body, which

we explore in Chapter 4 Briefly, epithelial tissue covers the

body surface and lines its cavities Muscle tissue provides

movement Connective tissue supports and protects body

organs Nervous tissue provides a means of rapid internal com

-munication by transmitting electrical impulses

An organ is a discrete structure composed of at least two

tissue types (four is more common) that performs a specific

function for the body The liver, the brain, and a blood vessel

are very different from the stomach, but each is an organ You

can think of each organ of the body as a specialized functional

center responsible for a necessary activity that no other organ

can perform

At the organ level, extremely complex functions become

possible Let's take the stomach for an example Its lining is an

epithelium that produces digestive juices The bulk of its wall is

muscle, which churns and ,nixes stomach contents (food) Its con

-nective tissue reinforces the soft muscular walls Its nerve fibers

increase digestive activity by stimulating the muscle to contract

more vigorously and the glands to secrete more digestive juices

The next level of organization is the organ system level

Organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose

make up an organ s y stern For example, the heart and blood

vessels of the cardiovascular system circulate blood continu

-ously to carry oxygen and nutrients to all body cells Besides

the cardiovascular system, the other organ syste,us of the body

are the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine,

lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive sys

-tems (Note that the immune system is closely associated with

the lymphatic system.) Look ahead to Figure 1.4 on pp 6-7 for

an overview of the 11 organ systems

The highest level of organization is the organisrn, the living

htunan being The orgauismal level represents the sum total of

all structural levels working together to keep us alive

Check Your Understanding

4 What level of structural organization is typical of a cytologist's

field of study?

5 What is the correct structural order for the following terms:

tssue, organism, organ, cell?

== - For answers , see Answers Appendix

m What are the requirements

for life?

Learning Outcomes

List the functional characteristics necessary to maintain

life in humans

List the survival needs of the body

Necessary Life Functions

Now that you know the structural levels of the human body, the

question that naturally follows is: What does this highly

orga-nized human body do?

Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 5

Like all complex animals, humans maintain their boundaries, move, respond to environmental changes, take in and digest nutrients, carry out metabolism, dispose of wastes, re-

-produce themselves, and grow We will introduce these neces

-sary life functions here and discuss them in more detail in later chapters

We cannot emphasize too strongly that all body cells are

interdependent This interdependence is due to the fact that

humans are multicellular organisms and our vital body func

-tions are parceled out among different organ systems Organ

systems, in turn, work cooperatively to promote the well

-being of the entire body Figure 1 3 identifies some of the organ systems making major contributions to necessary life functions Also, as you read this section, check Fig u re 1 4

on pp 6-7 for more detailed descriptions of the body's organ systems

di ox ide to disposal organs

\ ~

Heart

In t ers t itial f l u id

I

Nutrients and was te s pass

cells via th e in t ersti t ial fluid

Urin a ry system Elimina te s

nitrogenous wastes and

excess ions

~ ! ; l n - t - eg _ u m _ en t _ _ ry _ s _ y _ s - te - m - - - - ~ r- - ~ ~

from the ex t erna l environment

F ig ure 1.3 Examples of interrelationships among body

organ systems

6 U N I T 1 Organization of the Body

(a) lntegumenta r y System

Forms the external body cove r i ng , and

protec t s deeper tissues from i n jury

Syn t hes izes vi t am i n D , and houses

cutaneous (pain, pressure , etc ) r eceptors,

and sweat and o i l g l ands

( d ) N ervous System

As the las t -ac t i ng contro l system of the

body , i t responds to i n t ernal and external

changes by act i vat i ng appropr i ate

m u scles and g l ands

(b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs , and prov ides a framework the musc l es use

t o cause movemen t B l ood ce lls are formed w i th i n bones Bones store m inerals

(e) Endocr i ne System

G l ands secrete ho r mones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction , and nutrient use (metabol ism) by body

Ma i nta i ns pos t ure , and produces heat

(f) Car d i ovascula r System Blood vesse l s transport b l ood, wh i ch carries oxygen , carbon d ioxide, nutrients , wastes , etc The heart pumps blood

( g ) Lymphati c Systemllm muni ty

Picks u p fl u id leaked from blood vessels

and ret u rns i t to b l ood Disposes

o f debr i s in the lympha t ic stre a m

Houses white b l ood ce ll s (lymphocytes)

involved i n i m m un i ty The immune

response m ounts the attack agains t

fo r e i gn subs t ances w i th i n the body

(j) U r i nary System

Eli m inates n i t r ogenous wastes from the

body Regula t es water , elec t rolyte, and

acid-base balance o f the blood

Fig ur e 1 4 (con t inued)

Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 7

Keeps blood constantly s u p plied w i t h oxygen and removes ca r bon dioxide

These exchanges occur th r ough

the walls of the a i r sacs o f the lungs

( i ) D i gest i ve System

B r e a ks down food i nto absorbable units tha t enter the blood for distrib u t i on to body ce ll s Indiges t ible foodst u ffs are

el imin a ted as feces

( k ) Ma l e Rep r oductive System (I) Fema l e Rep r oductive System

Overa ll func t ion i s p r o d uction of offsp r ing Tes t es p r o d uce spe r m and m ale sex hormone ,

and m ale ducts and glands aid in delivery o f sperm to the female rep r oductive t r act Ova ri es prod u ce eggs and fe m al e sex ho r mones The r ema i ning fem a l e s tr uctures serve a s sites for

fe r t ilizat i on and development of t he f etus Ma m ma r y glands of f ema l e breasts p r oduce

m i k to nour i sh the newborn

8 U N I T 1 Organization of the Body

Maintaining Boundaries

Every Jiving organism must 1 aintain its boundaries so that

i s internal environment (its inside) remains distinct from the

external environment (its outside) In single-celled organisms,

the external boundary is a lirniting membrane that encloses its

contents and lets in needed substances while restricting entry of

potentially damaging or unnecessary substances Similarly, all

body cells are surrounded by a selectively permeable plas, na

11ie111b r ane

The plasma membrane separates the intracellular fluid

inside cells from the ext r acellular fluid outside Part of the

extracellular fluid (blood plas111a) is enclosed in blood vessels

The remainder, the i nterstitial flu i d, surrounds and bathes all of

our cells (see Figure 1.3 on p 5)

Another important boundary, the integumentary system,

or skin, encloses the body as a \vhole (Figure J 4a) This

system protects our internal organs from drying out (a fatal

change), infection, and the damaging effects of heat, sunlight,

and an unbel evable number of chemicals in the external

environment

Movement

Movement includes the activities promoted by the muscular

system, such as propelling ourselves from one place to another

by running or swimming, and manipulating the exten1al en

vi-ronment with our nimble fingers (Figure l 4c) The skeletal

system provides the bony framework that the muscles pull on

as they work (Figure J 4b ) Movement also occurs when

sub-stances such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled

through internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive, and

urinary systems, respectively On the cellular level, the mus

-cle cell's abi ity to move by shortening is more precisely called

contractility

Responsiveness

Responsiveness, or excitability, is the abiity to sense changes

(stimuli) in the environment and then respond to them For

example, if you cut your hand on broken glass, a w i thd r awal

reflex occurs-you involuntarily pull your hand away frorn the

painful st mulus (the broken glass) You don't have to think

about it- it just happens! Likewise, when carbon dioxide in

your blood rises to dangerously high levels, chemical sensors

respond by sending messages to brain centers controlling respi

-ration, and you breathe more rapidly

Because nerve cells are highly excitable and communicate

rapidly wi h each other via electrical impulses, the nervous

sys-tem is most involved with responsiveness (Figure J.4d) How

-ever, all body cells are excitable to some extent

Digestion

Digestion is the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple

molecules that can be absorbed into the blood The nutrient-rich

blood is then distributed to all body cells by the cardiovascular

system In a simple, one-celled organism such as an amoeba,

the cell itself is the "digestion factory," but in the multicellular

human body, the digestive system performs this function for the

entire body (Figure l 4i)

Metabolism

Metabolism (me-tab'o-lizm; "a state of change") is a broad

term that includes all chemical reactions that occur wi hin body cells It includes breaking down substances into simpler

bui ding blocks (the process of catabolisrn), synthesizing more

complex substances from simpler bui ding blocks (anabolisr n),

and using nutrients and oxygen to produce (via c ellula r res

-pirat i on) ATP, the energy-rich molecules that power cellular

activi ies Metabolism depends on the digestive and respiratory systems to make nutrients and oxygen available to the blood,

and on the cardiovascular system to distribute them through

is regulated largely by hormones secreted by endocrine system

glands (Figure I 4e)

Excretion

Excretion is the process of removing wastes, or exc r eta

(ek-skre'tah), from the body If the body is to operate as we expect it to, it must get rid of nonuseful substances produced

during digestion and metabolism

Several organ systems participate in excretion For example,

the digestive system rids the body of indigestible food residues

in feces, and the urinary system disposes of nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes, such as urea, in urine (Figure l 4i and j)

Carbon dioxide, a by-product of cellular respiration, is carried

in the blood to the lungs, where it leaves the body in exhaled

air (Figure l 4h)

Reproduction Reproduction occurs at the cellular and the organismal level

In cellular reproduction, the original cell divides, producing two

identical daughter cells that may then be used for body growth

or repair Reproduction of the human organism, or making a

whole new person, is the major task of the reproductive system

When a sperm unites with an egg, a fert lized egg forms and develops into a baby within the mother's body The reproduc-

tive system is directly responsible for producing offspring, but

its function is exquisitely regulated by hormones of the endcrine system (Figure J.4e)

o-Because males produce sperm and females produce eggs ( ova), there is a division of labor in reproduction, and

the reproductive organs of males and females are different (Figure J.4k, I) Additionally, the female's reproductive struc-

tures provide the site for fertil zation of eggs by sperm, and then

protect and nurture the developing fetus until birth

Growth

Gro\vth is an increase in size of a body part or the organism as

a whole It is usually accornpl shed by increasing the number of cells However, individual cells also increase in size when not

dividing For true growth to occur, constructive activities must

occur at a faster rate than destructive ones

Survival Needs

The ul imate goal of all body systems is to maintain life Hever, life is extraordinarily fragile and requires several factors