Introduction
This chapter outlines the rationale for the study and highlights the thesis's intended contributions, addressing the identified research gap through specific research questions It emphasizes the significance of the dissertation in enhancing quality management (QM) policies and practices within Vietnamese higher education (HE) Additionally, the chapter provides a comprehensive outline of the entire study while acknowledging the limitations of its scope.
Rationale
The twenty-first century has ushered in a transformative society characterized by rapid knowledge expansion, swift advancements in science and technology, and increased globalization, all while facing resource scarcity This dynamic environment exerts significant pressure on various sectors, including educational institutions, which must adapt to these evolving trends, as highlighted by Partington and Brown.
In the 1990s, higher education institutions (HEIs) experienced significant transformations, characterized by a substantial increase in student population diversity and size This era also brought new expectations from stakeholders regarding graduates' employability in the knowledge economy, alongside heightened accountability for HEIs in fulfilling their missions Additionally, there was a growing demand for efficient and effective quality management (QM) within these institutions.
Following significant investments in higher education, including the establishment of more universities to address pressing challenges, new courses have been developed, academic programs revised, and curricula enhanced However, this progress has given rise to new concerns regarding curriculum outcomes, the efficiency of institutional operations, and overall effectiveness.
The transparency and efficiency of investments in higher education have become critical concerns for higher education institutions (HEIs) and governments, highlighting the importance of quality assurance (QA) and standards (Lenn, 2004; Campbell & Roznyai, 2002; Martin & Stella, 2007) Since the 1980s, HEIs worldwide, particularly in developing countries, have increasingly adopted QA and quality management (QM) models, accreditation processes, auditing, and peer reviews to enhance educational quality (Brookes & Becket, 2007; Grant, Mergen, & Widrick 2004; Manatos, Sarrico, & Rosa, 2017; Owlia & Aspinwall, 1997; Pratasavitskaya & Stensaker, 2010; Tari & Dick, 2016).
The search for standardized approaches in Vietnamese higher education is crucial, especially after a decade of rapid expansion with the establishment of numerous universities The transition from a year-based curriculum to a credit-based learning system has prompted a significant shift towards innovative teaching methodologies and active learning, diverging from the traditional Confucian-influenced educational style Consequently, this transformation has led to a sense of disarray among stakeholders In response to these challenges, Vietnam has made considerable efforts to utilize its resources effectively to develop a more comprehensive educational framework.
Since 2003, the QA system has been implemented to ensure higher education institutions (HEIs) and programs meet their missions and objectives through accreditation This system promotes quality by encouraging self-evaluation and continuous improvement at the institutional level.
With the revision of the Education Law of 2005 (National Assembly of Vietnam [NAV],
By 2009, nearly all Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Vietnam had established a Quality Assurance (QA) unit (Niedermeier & Pohlenz, 2016) Between 2005 and 2014, 93% of HEIs submitted self-evaluation reports, yet only 104 of these institutions updated their reports after five years (Ministry of Education and Training [MOET], 2016) Additionally, the General Department of Education Testing and Accreditation (GDETA), authorized by MOET, completed external evaluations for the first 20 HEIs, although the results have not been publicly disclosed This initiative has provided Vietnamese HEIs with valuable insights into their current status and future expectations.
In the new era of challenges, understanding Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) and External Quality Assurance (EQA) is crucial for institutions While EQA is a valuable initiative, it alone is not enough to establish quality standards if it continues to be driven solely by external factors.
Quality assurance in higher education institutions (HEIs) is a fundamental responsibility, as highlighted by the European Association of Quality Assurance Agencies (ENQA, 2015) This raises critical questions regarding the institutionalization of internal quality assurance (IQA) in Vietnamese HEIs, particularly how they adopt and adapt quality practices from developed countries It is essential to explore the facilitators and challenges faced when implementing these practices, which are often transferred from a Western context to a distinctly different Eastern culture Ultimately, understanding the significance of quality within these institutions is crucial for their development and success.
Genuine improvement in institutions requires recognizing the strategic significance of quality management (QM) and implementing effective daily management practices A robust management approach goes beyond mere accountability and compliance with standards; it aims to enhance operational efficiency, improve quality, and support the development of human capital, innovation, and social, cultural, and environmental progress.
In light of Vietnamese higher education institutions' efforts to enhance quality and align with global university rankings, it is essential to examine the discourse surrounding quality management (QM) implementation within the Vietnamese context Current research primarily emphasizes the development of quality assurance (QA) systems, focusing on accreditation and its business implications Studies highlight the necessity of QA as a critical educational reform for higher education institutions, underscoring its recent establishment and the strong emphasis on accreditation within the sector.
Vu, 2012; Madden, 2014; X T Pham, 2012, 2013), accreditation (Le, 2017; Nguyen, Evers,
Research on quality assurance (QA) in higher education institutions (HEIs) in Vietnam has primarily focused on limited aspects, with significant contributions from various scholars (Marshall, 2017; Nguyen et al., 2009; Westerheijden et al., 2010) and the introduction of quality management (QM) models from the business sector (H Q Nguyen, 2010; T K A Nguyen, 2010; Nguyen, 2016) Notably, Nguyen's (2011) empirical study offers a unique perspective by examining university management, specifically in curriculum planning and the impact of a Vietnam-Netherlands project on Professionally Oriented Higher Education However, there remains a lack of comprehensive research systematically exploring how internal quality assurance (IQA) is managed within Vietnamese HEIs.
By seeking to widen the scope of previous research, this study centres on the nature of
This study explores the implementation of Quality Management (QM) in Vietnamese Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), identifying current practices, challenges, and potential improvements from stakeholders' perspectives Utilizing a mixed methods approach, it offers a thorough analysis of the complexities surrounding QM in these institutions The research focuses on the status and practices of QM at selected local universities, leading to the development of a rigorous and empirically validated QM framework tailored for Vietnamese HEIs This framework serves as a foundation for assessing implications for national policy and HEI practices.
This study presents an opportunity to explore the Vietnamese higher education context, characterized by distinct cultural and economic conditions, offering valuable comparisons to nations with more advanced quality policies and measurements It aims to enhance the literature on how higher education institutions (HEIs) respond to diverse external demands Furthermore, the research seeks to establish a relevant quality management (QM) framework for rapidly modernizing countries developing new university systems, recognizing that the challenges faced by these institutions differ from those in established Western systems, thereby questioning the applicability of existing Western QM frameworks.
This thesis aims to explore the context of Quality Management (QM) in Vietnamese Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) The research findings will offer valuable insights and strategies to enhance the effective implementation of QM within these institutions, ultimately contributing to improved educational quality and outcomes.
Aim, objectives, and research questions
Aim
To investigate the nature of quality management in public Vietnamese higher education institutions.
Objectives
The study has three interrelated objectives:
- The conceptual objective: To develop a conceptually rigorous and empirically validated framework of QM for public Vietnamese HEIs;
- The technical objective: To investigate the nature of QM in Vietnamese HEIs, more specifically public universities using the conceptual framework; and
- The practical objective: To examine implications for national policy and HEI practice based on the outcomes of the two objectives above.
Research questions
Accordingly, one primary and three subsidiary research questions are:
What is the nature of quality management in Vietnamese public HEIs?
This fundamental question leads to three subsidiary research questions:
Subsidiary research question one: What are the characteristics of a conceptually rigorous and empirically validated framework of QM for Vietnamese public HEIs?
The second subsidiary research question explores the actual characteristics of quality management (QM) in higher education in Vietnam, focusing on the potential discrepancies between the ideals presented in the literature and the current practices observed in the field This investigation aims to identify the gaps between theoretical frameworks and real-world implementation of quality management systems within Vietnamese higher education institutions By analyzing these differences, the study seeks to provide insights into the effectiveness and challenges of QM practices in Vietnam, ultimately contributing to the enhancement of educational quality.
Subsidiary research question three: What are the implications for national policy and HEI practice in view of the quality framework and the current state of play?
The research questions framed the analysis of the empirical components of the study, which in turn have influenced the interpretation of the results and helped guide successful research outcomes.
Summary of methodology
This study explores the nature of quality management in Vietnamese public higher education institutions (HEIs) by examining higher education policy and management To thoroughly address the primary question, a sequential mixed methods approach was employed, enhancing data collection and increasing the validity of the findings This methodology facilitates knowledge creation and provides a deeper, broader understanding of the phenomenon, as outlined by Creswell & Plano Clark (2011).
To effectively evaluate quality in Vietnamese higher education institutions (HEIs) from a Quality Management (QM) perspective, a tailored conceptual framework is essential The notion that "one size fits all" is inadequate in higher education, as highlighted by Ossiannilsson, Camilleri, and Brown (2015), underscores the need for cultural and contextual adaptations Therefore, developing a framework specifically designed for the Vietnamese tertiary education landscape is crucial for the success of this research project.
This research begins by examining the context of Vietnamese higher education to establish a rationale for the study It then analyzes definitions and key characteristics of higher education institutions (HEIs) as a foundational backdrop for the analysis Major concepts such as quality, quality assurance (QA), quality management (QM), and Deming’s management theory are reviewed to inform the development of a conceptual QM framework Recognizing that these concepts cannot exist in isolation, the study utilizes Hofstede’s national cultural theory to explore how Vietnamese national characteristics may influence the implementation of QM in HEIs.
The literature on Quality Management (QM) in higher education has been systematically reviewed through six meta-analyses, emphasizing QM models that highlight key dimensions of effective practices in global higher education This review aims to identify strategies that can be adapted to local contexts To ensure empirical validation, a quasi-Delphi method was employed, gathering insights from experts in the field of higher education.
QM in higher education The findings helped establish an empirically validated conceptual framework for revealing and discussing QM practices in public Vietnamese HEIs
This conceptual framework guided the identification of relevant documents and the design of interview questions for an in-depth analysis of Quality Management (QM) at three selected higher education institutions (HEIs) The descriptive and exploratory case study involved reviewing documents related to QM, which provided essential background information for finalizing the interview questions Semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather insights from stakeholders on QM implementation, helping to identify implications for national policy and HEI practices within the quality framework Ultimately, the findings will validate the QM framework for HEIs.
Chapter 5 provides an in-depth exploration of the recruitment strategy, outlining data collection techniques, participants' tasks, and the data analysis methods employed It also addresses the methodological limitations of the research instruments and highlights the ethical considerations involved in the study.
Significance of study
This empirical research offers significant practical and theoretical insights for Quality Management (QM) in higher education, particularly for Vietnamese institutions It highlights the necessity for effective QM within local Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and provides a foundational understanding of QM from the perspectives of stakeholders By addressing the current lack of knowledge regarding QM implementation in Vietnamese HEIs, this study serves as a valuable resource for future Vietnamese researchers and contributes to bridging gaps in local literature through authentic reflections on the subject.
This study presents effective strategies to improve quality management (QM) at three selected higher education institutions (HEIs) in Vietnam It serves as a valuable resource for decision-makers and policy planners at both institutional and national levels Additionally, the findings can assist other Vietnamese HEIs in developing contextually appropriate and relevant quality management practices.
The study offers a tailored Quality Management (QM) framework for public universities in Vietnam, ensuring its relevance to the local educational context By doing so, it aims to enhance the understanding and application of QM practices, effectively bridging the gap between local and foreign higher education institutions.
The study reveals that Western theories and practices can effectively integrate with the complex socio-political and cultural contexts of Vietnam This insight is crucial for Quality Management (QM) practitioners in countries with similar backgrounds, suggesting that the proposed framework may be more applicable than traditional Western models for nations swiftly advancing their university systems Additionally, the research underscores the importance of this blended approach.
9 necessity of a complementary approach to solving complicated contemporary problems in educational and social sciences.
Scope of study
The researcher recognizes various approaches to exploring the nature of Quality Management (QM) in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and has established specific boundaries to direct the study While these limitations are presented here, they are also addressed throughout the research as needed Alongside the findings, many of these boundaries pave the way for new research opportunities.
First of all, this research project does not investigate QM implementation in general but more specifically QM implementation in the Vietnamese higher education institutional setting
Due to distinct operational, resource generation, and administrative differences between public and non-public institutions in Vietnam, this study focuses exclusively on public universities Consequently, the findings may be relevant only to public higher education institutions.
This study examines the current status and practices of Quality Management (QM) in higher education institutions (HEIs), specifically focusing on four-year universities that offer both undergraduate and graduate programs in teaching and research It excludes junior colleges, community colleges, and professional colleges, which typically have training durations of less than four years and do not consistently engage in research activities.
Due to the challenges in obtaining a representative sample from the higher education sector, this research utilized data collected from a small group of 31 stakeholders across three institutions, along with insights from 47 experts in the field.
10 field Thus, the findings of this study might not be able to be generalised beyond the study sample
In developing a conceptual quality management framework for Vietnamese public higher education institutions, the number of participating experts ranged from 34 in the first round to 47 in the second round, as detailed in Chapter 5 Although the first round met the minimum sample size requirement, involving additional experts could have enhanced the framework's design Nevertheless, the valuable insights gained from open-ended questions and the enthusiasm of the experts helped mitigate this limitation.
Given the high consensus among experts in the second round, a third round was considered unnecessary, as it was unlikely to alter their ratings and opinions However, conducting a third round could have further validated the framework's relevance and accuracy.
To ensure the effectiveness of the developed framework, it is crucial to empirically validate its applicability and usefulness through practical implementation This will allow for an examination of the benefits that Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) can achieve by adopting this framework.
A case study approach may face criticism for its limited generalizability, as it concentrates on specific instances or situations Therefore, the findings of this study should be interpreted cautiously and may not be applicable to all higher education institutions (HEIs) nationwide.
Qualitative research can be susceptible to bias due to the reliance on the researcher’s subjective observations and interpretations To mitigate this bias, researchers employ a structured protocol that includes carefully crafted questions and diverse data sources, such as interviews and document reviews Additionally, incorporating various stakeholders' perspectives and conducting preliminary analyses during interviews aids in verification and triangulation of the findings.
The researcher's prior knowledge of the local system and contexts can introduce bias, even though it offers valuable insider insights To mitigate these risks, careful attention was given to the data collection and analysis processes.
Structure of thesis
This dissertation comprises nine chapters, each starting with an introduction that offers a brief overview of the chapter's context and its connection to the overall research Each chapter concludes with a summary that encapsulates the key points discussed and links the current chapter to the subsequent one The thesis is organized to facilitate a clear understanding of the research structure.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the Vietnamese higher education landscape, highlighting the efforts to develop quality higher education institutions (HEIs) and the urgent necessity for an effective quality management (QM) system at the institutional level.
Chapter 3 explores seven interconnected areas of knowledge related to higher education and higher education institutions (HEIs) to provide a thorough theoretical understanding of the subject It starts by defining higher education and HEIs, then reviews concepts of quality, quality assurance (QA), and quality management (QM), alongside the adapted Deming cycle in the context of higher education The chapter further examines Hofstede et al.'s (2010) national culture theory and highlights unique cultural traits of Vietnam that may impact institutional operations.
Chapter 4 outlines key arguments for effective practices in quality management frameworks within higher education, building on the foundational concepts discussed in Chapter 3 By integrating insights from Chapter 2, this chapter identifies essential dimensions and corresponding elements drawn from the literature that are vital for managing quality in higher education institutions (HEIs).
Chapter 5 provides a comprehensive overview of the study's methodology and research design, detailing two key stages Stage One outlines the development of a literature-based and empirically validated quality framework, employing a mixed-methods approach that includes a two-round process.
Stage Two of the study presents a comprehensive case analysis that incorporates various data collection methods, including document analysis and in-depth semi-structured interviews, to examine the implementation of Quality Management (QM) This chapter also addresses research ethics, providing insights into how ethical considerations were integrated into the study.
Chapter 6 addresses subsidiary research question 1 by presenting expert feedback and the findings from a two-round survey, ultimately establishing a relevant and effective framework for Quality Management (QM) in Vietnamese Higher Education Institutions (HEIs).
Chapters 7 and 8 provide a comprehensive analysis of the second subsidiary research question by examining the cross-case analysis and key findings from semi-structured interviews, contextualized within the previously established concepts and framework Chapter 7 highlights the successful implementation of Quality Management (QM) in three selected higher education institutions (HEIs), drawing insights from stakeholders In contrast, Chapter 8 delves into the challenges faced during QM implementation and offers recommendations for improvement, concluding with a discussion on the underlying reasons for these challenges Collectively, these chapters illustrate the practical application of QM in higher education settings.
QM, the gap between this and the ‘ideals’ from the literature, and attempts to close the gap
Chapter 9 addresses the third subsidiary research question by summarizing key findings related to the evaluation of Quality Management (QM) implementation in three Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) It highlights the facilitators, inhibitors, and strategies associated with QM implementation, along with the theoretical, practical, and methodological contributions of the QM framework Additionally, the chapter discusses the implications for policy and practice and suggests potential directions for future research.
Summary
This study is among the few that explore the implementation of Quality Management (QM) in Vietnamese higher education institutions (HEIs), addressing a topic that has garnered increasing attention but lacks substantial research-based insights It aims to enhance the existing Quality Assurance (QA) system in Vietnamese HEIs through a QM perspective The research design outlined in this chapter sets the foundation for the study, while the next chapter will provide an overview of the Vietnamese higher education landscape and the efforts to establish quality HEIs Within this framework, the necessity for an effective QM system at the institutional level will be further examined.
2 Chapter 2: The Context Vietnamese Higher Education and Quality Assurance
Introduction
This chapter reviews the context and rationale for the research by examining the evolution of Vietnamese higher education over the past thirty years It discusses the government's and higher education institutions' (HEIs) responses to improving education quality, highlighting the development of quality policies and mechanisms implemented since 1986 The chapter concludes with a summary of quality management (QM) in the higher education sector, emphasizing the necessity for effective QM practices in Vietnamese HEIs.
The current state of play
The structure
Vietnamese higher education has been significantly shaped by the educational systems of China, France, the former Soviet Union, and the USA, reflecting the country's historical, economic, social, and political transformations (Nguyen et al., 2009) As a result, its structure and practices share similarities with these influences According to the Education Law (NAV, 2009), higher education institutions (HEIs) in Vietnam encompass colleges, universities, institutes, regional universities, national universities, and research institutes, which can be classified into public, private, and foreign-related categories (Nguyen et al., 2009).
The 15 universities can be categorized into two primary types: mono-disciplinary or specialized institutions that concentrate on a single field of study, such as finance, technology, architecture, banking, or law, and multi-disciplinary universities that offer a diverse array of disciplines.
Vietnamese higher education offers four main degree categories: Associate degrees (3 years), Bachelor's degrees (4-6 years), Master's degrees (1-2 years), and Doctoral degrees (2-4 years) While universities can confer all four types of degrees, colleges are limited to awarding only Associate degrees Additionally, research institutes can grant Doctoral degrees but typically partner with universities to offer Master's degrees.
Until 2015, admission to full-time tertiary programs was based on a national university entrance examination However, this method has since been abolished, allowing higher education institutions to create their own selection criteria based on high school leaving exam results.
Since 1986, higher education institutions (HEIs) have been permitted to establish revenue-generating part-time programs, including in-service, second-degree, and transfer options, to cater to diverse student needs The primary mode of instruction is face-to-face education, with a small percentage offered through distance learning While Vietnamese is the usual language of instruction, an increasing number of universities are providing Bachelor's and Master's programs in languages such as English, French, and German, thereby attracting both international and local students.
Vietnamese higher education institutions (HEIs) are now categorized according to Decree 73/2015/NĐ-CP, which establishes a framework for stratification and ranking This classification divides HEIs into three distinct groups: research-oriented, application-oriented, and practice-oriented institutions.
In 2015, a significant development occurred when sixteen universities were designated as 'key' institutions by Decision 37/2013/QD-TTg from the Prime Minister’s Office, representing nearly two-thirds of all university enrolments in the country These key universities play a crucial role in the higher education landscape.
1 Education cost sharing between the government and the stakeholders
2 Part-time programs for high school graduates conducted in the evenings only (usually four years)
3 Part-time programs for bachelors conducted in the evenings only (usually two or three years)
4 Part-time programs for college graduates conducted in the evenings only (usually two or three years)
Vietnam's higher education landscape is evolving, with the government aiming to diversify its traditionally focused training by establishing 16 larger, research-oriented universities In collaboration with Germany, France, Japan, the UK, and the US, five world-class universities have been planned to rank among the top 200 globally by 2020 However, only three of these institutions have begun operations and are currently facing challenges in attracting students, primarily due to high tuition fees and limited resources (Pham, 2014).
The governance
Centralized management remains prevalent in Vietnamese higher education, largely due to the country's single-party political system, which significantly influences educational policies In this system, the leaders of educational institutions, typically the president or vice president, also hold positions within the Communist Party committee, meaning that decisions made by the party directly impact institutional governance Furthermore, directives from the government or the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) are closely aligned with the directives of Communist Party leaders, reinforcing the party's control at all levels of education.
“Line ministry control” still prevails with its disadvantages though years have passed since the publication of Resolution 14/2005/NQ-CP in 2005 and then Directive 296/CT-TTg in
As of 2010, Vietnam's higher education system is structured with two flagship national universities, one in Hanoi and the other in Ho Chi Minh City, reporting directly to the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) In addition, approximately 60 public higher education institutions (HEIs), including 16 leading universities, are accountable to the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) The remaining public HEIs fall under the jurisdiction of around 13 different ministries and various provincial governments For instance, the Ho Chi Minh City University of Economics is overseen by MOET, while the Vietnam National University of Agriculture is managed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.
The Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) is responsible for overseeing the higher education (HE) system, but various ministries and local authorities significantly influence budget allocations, appointments of rectors and vice-rectors, and key decisions related to higher education institutions (HEIs) This overlapping control creates operational challenges and management inefficiencies within HEIs, hindering their effectiveness and decision-making processes.
According to the Higher Education Law (Article 32), certain higher education institutions (HEIs) in Vietnam can experience a degree of institutional autonomy, allowing them to develop their strategies and manage budgets while adhering to the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) guidelines Despite the introduction of policies aimed at promoting decentralization and enhancing institutional autonomy, a significant gap remains between theory and practice MOET continues to exert strict control over various aspects of higher education, including the establishment of new HEIs, curriculum design, enrollment quotas, tuition fees, academic standards, personnel management, and funding allocation This top-down governance approach limits innovation, institutional autonomy, and academic freedom, ultimately hindering the development of HEIs in Vietnam.
The non-public HEIs
Private higher education institutions (HEIs) are noteworthy, particularly regarding quality assurance (QA) issues, which appear to be more critical than in public institutions In 2014, there were 89 private HEIs among 436 total institutions, catering to approximately 20% of the 313,600 enrolled students, representing 12.8% of overall higher education enrollment (General Statistics Office [GSO], 2017) The World Bank Higher Education Project, initiated in 1998, aimed to establish a QA system to enhance enrollment in private HEIs, focusing on addressing challenges such as inadequate methodologies and subpar academic quality (World Bank, 1998).
Private higher education institutions (HEIs) face numerous challenges, particularly in their competition with public HEIs The struggle intensifies as private institutions rely on recruiting students who were unable to enroll in public universities due to the Ministry of Education and Training's (MOET) limited quotas The situation worsened when 13 public universities began a pilot program for financial autonomy under the Law on Higher Education (NAV, 2012), allowing them to set their own student recruitment numbers based on their capacities As a result, it appears increasingly difficult for private HEIs to compete effectively in this landscape.
Higher education institutions (HEIs) face significant infrastructure challenges due to minimal government support and reliance on student tuition fees To optimize revenue and minimize expenses, these institutions prioritize programs with high return on investment, such as business administration, information technology, hospitality studies, and foreign languages like English Consequently, the government's goal of having 40% of all enrolments be private by 2020 appears unrealistic.
The inconsistent management approach from the government and the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has led to significant internal conflicts within higher education institutions in Vietnam, resulting in drastic declines in student enrollment, with one previously high-performing institution seeing numbers drop from 10,000 to just 50 (Manh, 2016) Consequently, the disparities between public and private higher education institutions in Vietnam have become more pronounced.
The finance
Public institutions rely on two primary income sources: the state budget and additional revenues, while non-public institutions enjoy complete financial autonomy The state budget funds staff salaries, student expenses, research initiatives, daily operations, and facility maintenance Additional revenues come from tuition fees, research grants, and technology transfers to businesses and the community However, the Ministry of Education and Training's strict fee regulations, which cover only about 20% of total costs, pose significant challenges for higher education institutions in maintaining balanced budgets.
Due to financial pressures, the Vietnamese government is reducing funding to public institutions while granting higher education institutions (HEIs) increased operational autonomy Since 2014, 13 universities have participated in a financial autonomy pilot scheme, allowing them to operate with less reliance on government funding However, this autonomy is still constrained by bureaucratic procedures within a centrally controlled legal framework Despite some recent flexibility, the system remains largely characterized by central oversight, as noted by Sheridan (2010).
The education system faces significant challenges due to centralized state management that restricts flexible teaching and management It suffers from severe underfunding and inflexible funding mechanisms, coupled with aging facilities that hinder effective learning Additionally, outdated resources and curricula, along with insufficiently qualified teachers and researchers, contribute to a low capacity for advanced skills training and research development There is also a notable underinvestment in science and technology, alongside a strong division between teaching and research, which limits the ability of public universities to innovate and update their educational content and methodologies.
Vietnamese higher education institutions (HEIs) face significant challenges due to underfunding, which limits their motivation to implement necessary renovations or adopt effective incentive strategies As the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) covers staff salaries, these institutions lack the resources to prioritize quality improvement initiatives Consequently, continuous improvement remains elusive, as under-resourced HEIs struggle to find the motivation for quality enhancement (T L P Pham, 2012, p.290).
Graduate employability
The employability of students has become a significant concern for higher education institutions (HEIs), employers, students, and their families Despite substantial initiatives from the government and the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), the persistent issue of unemployment indicates a troubling trend related to low university graduate employability.
Between March and June 2016, Vietnam faced a significant challenge with 26,700 higher education graduates entering the unemployment pool, contributing to a total of 1,088,700 unemployed individuals, where graduates represented 29.4% (319,800) of that figure (GSO, 2016) This issue is exacerbated by the rapid increase in the number of graduates, whose skills and creativity fail to meet the demands of employers (McCornac, 2012).
Many believe that Vietnamese graduates are less qualified than those from neighboring countries, resulting in decreased competitiveness in the job market Despite having a substantial labor force, the quality of graduates in Vietnam falls short of the expectations of businesses, especially foreign-owned firms (Weng, 2015) This decline in student quality is evident across various dimensions (Reddy, 2012).
The skill gap, characterized by a lack of essential soft skills such as communication, teamwork, and critical thinking, along with insufficient ICT and English proficiency, hinders job applicants from meeting employer expectations This occupational skills shortage stems largely from ineffective collaboration between higher education institutions (HEIs) and industry, as highlighted by the World Bank (2013) and Tran (2015).
Intense debates in the media highlight challenges in the labor market faced by both employers and graduates, raising concerns about the value of PhD degrees and the overall quality of university education Studies indicate significant issues in the education process, particularly regarding the effectiveness of current accreditation and assessment methods in Vietnam, despite substantial government investment in higher education Consequently, implementing effective quality management (QM) strategies is essential to address these criticisms and improve accountability and efficiency in the education sector.
Thirty years of change in Vietnamese higher education
Over the past three decades, Vietnam has achieved remarkable development, evolving from the second-poorest country in the mid-1980s, plagued by food shortages and widespread poverty, to a lower middle-income nation This transformation is largely attributed to the Vietnamese Communist Party's commitment to national renovation initiated during the 6th Congress, which shifted the country from centralized planning to a socialist-oriented market economy.
Since the economic reforms in 1986, Vietnam has experienced significant economic growth, as noted by the World Bank in 2016 However, this rapid growth largely relies on a plentiful low-skilled workforce and natural resources, raising concerns about the sustainability of its development (Harman, Hayden, & Pham, 2010).
Vietnam has undergone significant social transformations, as highlighted by the World Bank (2016), which notes "dramatic improvements in a range of social indicators." A key change is the surge in urbanization, with many individuals migrating from rural areas to cities in search of better job opportunities This trend has given rise to the fastest-growing middle and affluent class in Southeast Asia, projected to expand from 12 million in 2012 to 33 million by 2020 (Bharadwaj et al., 2013) Consequently, there is an increasing demand for improved educational services to meet the rising expectations of this class and other citizens (Hazelkorn, 2015) Additionally, globalization has significantly impacted higher education, leading to substantial changes driven by a complex interplay of political, economic, and socio-cultural factors (Altbach et al., 2009).
The higher education landscape has experienced a remarkable transformation, marked by a significant surge in both the number of students and higher education institutions (HEIs) By the academic year 2014-2015, the count of universities and colleges soared to 436, a substantial increase from just 101 in 1987 Additionally, the student population witnessed an astounding growth of over 1,676% during the same period, highlighting the dramatic expansion of higher education over the past 27 years.
The student-teacher ratio has reached 25.86:1, a slight improvement from 30:1 in 2007, despite the number of students increasing over 16 times while the number of lecturers only quadrupled This ratio remains significantly higher than in countries like Cambodia (17.75:1), Japan (6.99:1), Malaysia (15.95:1), Singapore (13.5:1), Thailand (23.49:1), the UK (15.69:1), and the USA (12.35:1) as of 2015 Efforts by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) have aimed to enhance the quantity and qualifications of lecturers.
High student-to-staff ratios negatively impact teaching quality by increasing teaching loads and reducing opportunities for personal interaction with students and professional development This situation ultimately makes the lecturing profession less appealing, resulting in qualified staff leaving higher education.
Viewed in this context, when the ratio between students and teachers worsens a low quality of higher education is unavoidable, causing widespread concern to the whole society
Table 1: HEIs, students, and lecturers 1987–2015
Academic year HEIs Private institutions Public institutions HE students HE lecturers
Source: Author, compiled from MOET (2009a), MOET (2015) & GSO (2017)
The second challenge is the drastic growth in scale in the diversity of university programs
Public higher education institutions (HEIs) have expanded their offerings to include in-service, second degree, and transfer programs alongside traditional full-time courses However, as of September 3, 2012, these programs face challenges due to insufficient qualified teachers, inadequate infrastructure, and the absence of an effective quality assurance system to evaluate their effectiveness, particularly in eight major cities.
In Vietnam, 23 provinces have declined to hire in-service graduates due to the negative reputation surrounding these programs (Quoc, 2012) This situation has been extensively reported in the media, highlighting significant concerns regarding the quality of teaching and learning in in-service and other non-regular university programs The ongoing conflict between educational quantity and quality underscores the pressing need for effective quality assurance (QA) measures to resolve these issues.
The emergence of private higher education institutions (HEIs) has significantly transformed the educational landscape, following the shift from central planning to market-oriented governance that began in 1988 Over the years, the non-public sector has expanded rapidly, growing from the first institution to 89 private providers within 28 years, with notable increases in enrollment numbers—from 34 HEIs in 2005 to 80 by 2010 This growth has been facilitated by the concept of "educational socialization," which encourages competition between public and private institutions However, concerns about the quality of education in private HEIs have led to decreased enrollment, as students tend to prefer public universities for their affordability and recognized degrees The government aims for private institutions to enroll 40% of students by 2020.
2005) However, looking at the foreseeable future, this target is unlikely to be achieved when the current enrolment for the non-public sector is less than 13% (GSO, 2017)
The establishment of universities in every province across the country signifies a significant transformation in higher education This broad access not only increases the student population but also promotes greater diversity among students (Radloff & Coates, 2013).
Twenty-four institutions are creating favorable conditions for students from low socio-economic backgrounds and rural areas to access higher education, contributing to regional development across various sectors However, this reform has led to an influx of students from diverse and underprepared backgrounds, as noted by Johnston (2011) in developing countries Consequently, teaching staff are required to offer remedial education to fill gaps in foundational literacy and numeracy skills, which increases their workload (Ashcroft & Rayner, 2011, p 67) This significant growth in student enrollment raises concerns about the capacity and resources of these institutions.
Since the late 1990s, Vietnam's higher education system has encountered quality challenges due to the expansion of mass education, diversification, and constrained resources The pursuit of increased access and equity amidst these diminishing resources has further complicated the task of maintaining educational quality (Welch, 2011).
The rapid growth of higher education in historically under-developed countries presents challenges in quickly establishing high-quality faculty, curricula, programs, and institutions (Blanco-Ramirez & Berger, 2014, p.99).
Given this tremendous growth and the complications associated with it, not only QA but also continuous quality improvement is required
In conclusion, higher education in Vietnam has made significant progress over the past 30 years, thanks to the dedication of its professionals The sector has broadened access for both younger and mature students, adapting to evolving stakeholder expectations There is an increased emphasis on research, enhanced resource capabilities, and the introduction of innovative teaching and learning methods, alongside improved quality assurance practices Nevertheless, challenges remain that need to be addressed.
25 of concerns and challenges There are some concerns that current arrangements for QA are not sufficient to ensure education quality given the trend of globalisation and internationalisation.
Government response
Governmental expenditure
The Vietnamese government has shown exceptional dedication to educational quality through the budget allocated to education, which is increasing year after year as indicated by Table 2
Table 2: Government expenditure on tertiary education as % of GDP
Cambodia 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.12 0.09 Indonesia 0.45 0.50 0.59 0.55 0.50 Japan 0.76 0.74 0.77 0.76 0.78 Malaysia 1.71 2.13 1.63 1.67 1.43 Singapore 1.09 1.10 1.19 1.03
USA 1.39 1.36 1.48 1.35 Vietnam 0.74 0.76 0.82 0.85 Source: Author, compiled from UNESCO (2017b)
Despite Vietnam's GDP being lower than that of developed nations such as Australia and the USA, the Vietnamese government is making significant efforts to enhance the quality of education, particularly in higher education This commitment to educational improvement is reflected in the country's policies and initiatives.
26 documents issued since 1986 focusing on different periods of QA development in Vietnamese higher education.
Significant policies from 1986 onwards
The 6th Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party initiated the historic Renovation Policy (Doi Moi), marking a significant transition from a centralized planning system to a socialist-oriented market economy This transformation introduced four essential principles at the inaugural Rectors’ Conference in 1987, which formed the basis of a three-year action program from 1987 to 1990 Additionally, the comprehensive review by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and the UNDP’s Education Review and Human Resources Sector Analysis provided a foundational framework for essential reforms in higher education.
Resolution 04-NQ/HNTW, dated January 14, 1993, outlines four fundamental principles for the continued renovation of education and training in Vietnam, signifying a commitment to establishing new foundations and future prospects for higher education in the country.
1 Prioritize education and regard education investment as production investment;
2 Reinforce education to increase the people's intellectual standard, train the workforce and cultivate talent;
3 Connect accumulated education knowledge directly to national development requirements and ensure lifelong learning for each citizen; and
4 Diversify forms of education and training and ensure the fee contribution to education under principles of equality (CPV, 1993, II.A., translated by the author)
The impact of the reform became increasingly clear following the announcement of Resolution 90/CP, which established the national education structure and degree system in Vietnam (GOV, 1993) This resolution, along with the subsequent Higher Education Reform Agenda (HERA), has significantly shaped the landscape of higher education in the country.
In 2005, the push for rapid educational development intensified concerns about improving quality within the system (Harman et al., 2010) Consequently, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) shifted its focus towards enhancing 'input' quality, implementing quality assurance measures, and establishing accreditation and ranking systems.
The emphasis on quality improvement in higher education has become a national strategy for development in Vietnam, driven by the need for higher educational management innovation As stakeholders prioritize quality enhancement, the formalized standards and comprehensive quality management structures within Vietnamese higher education institutions (HEIs) have gained significant importance in the transformation process Landmark policies reflect a commitment to establishing a complete quality assurance (QA) system, which will be elaborated upon in the following section.
Quality assurance development in Vietnamese higher education
Since the 1990s, Vietnam has been actively establishing external quality assurance (EQA) and internal quality assurance (IQA) systems, with numerous international projects aiding the advancement of higher education and quality assurance in the nation.
Nevertheless, from a holistic historical review of QA in Vietnamese higher education, we can classify the development of QA into four phases: from 1945 to 1986, from 1987 to
2003, from 2004 to 2012 and from 2013 till 2030
In Vietnamese higher education, the quality assurance method focuses on controlling input, output, and key activities within the educational process This era was characterized by elite higher education, where student intake was highly selective, determined by competitive entrance examinations Additionally, output quality was ensured through rigorous examinations, certification processes, and a strict university committee that approved graduation status following stringent procedures.
The inspection system, characterized by cumbersome regulations, served as a primary method of quality assurance (QA) but was inefficient due to its emphasis on identifying and penalizing violations In Vietnam during that era, proactive QA practices were not deemed necessary until the late 1980s, particularly in December.
1986 when the whole country embarked on Doi Moi, its comprehensive process of reform and liberalisation
The summer of 1987 marked a pivotal moment in Vietnam's higher education reform, as the conference of college and university leaders under the Ministry of Higher Education laid the groundwork for a national Quality Assurance (QA) system in response to the Doi Moi policy Following this conference, a series of events highlighted the urgent need for improved QA methods, particularly as the new millennium brought increasing concerns over the integrity of higher education quality These developments underscored the necessity for a robust QA framework to ensure the continued advancement and credibility of higher education in Vietnam.
In 2003, the establishment of the General Department for Education Testing and Accreditation (GDETA) by MOET marked a significant step in implementing quality assessment and evaluation in education This initiative led to the creation of several QA centres, representing a revolutionary change in the organizational structure and management of the education sector These centres aimed to develop a comprehensive legal framework for higher education quality assurance and accreditation, aligning with global QA standards and recognizing the importance of QA in the context of internationalization and globalization.
Since 2004, Vietnam's higher education has seen significant advancements in its national quality assurance (QA) system, driven by new legislation and guidelines focused on QA, educational testing, accreditation, and the recognition of overseas degrees The foundational legal frameworks established in the Education Laws of 2005, 2009, and 2012, along with various government decrees and directives from the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), have defined the roles and responsibilities within this system MOET, acting on behalf of the government, oversees accreditation activities to enhance institutional quality, delegating the evaluation and quality assurance tasks to the General Department of Education Testing and Accreditation (GDETA) As a result, Vietnam's higher education QA system has evolved into a comprehensive framework aimed at improving educational quality.
Vietnam, a relatively recent entrant in the field of Quality Assurance (QA), has drawn significant influence from established countries in North America, Europe, and particularly within the Asia-Pacific region, guided by the Asia-Pacific Quality Network (APQN) Chiba Principles Additionally, cultural similarities with Southeast Asian nations, as highlighted by the ASEAN University Network (AUN), have further shaped its QA landscape Through bilateral cooperation and support from international organizations like the World Bank, Vietnam has successfully developed a QA framework comprising three key components: internal quality assurance (IQA), external quality assurance (EQA), and accrediting agencies.
In 2004, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) introduced the Provisional Regulation for Accreditation of University Quality, marking a significant step in institutional quality assurance (IQA) By 2007, MOET mandated that higher education institutions (HEIs) establish Quality Assurance Centres, conduct self-assessments every five years, and implement improvements based on the findings.
In higher education institutions (HEIs), self-assessment results have led to the establishment of Quality Assurance (QA) teams at various levels, including faculties and departments Accreditation is a mandatory requirement for HEIs and their programs, with leading universities striving for integration into the Southeast Asian region and seeking international recognition encouraged to pursue accreditation from international agencies Currently, the QA Centres at VNU-HN and VNU-HCM, along with five regional universities in Thai Nguyen, Vinh, Hue, Da Nang, and Can Tho, are developing their own regulations and standards, while GDETA oversees the Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) units in other HEIs.
All self-assessments are grounded in the External Quality Assurance Framework (EQAF), which is outlined in government legal documents, particularly the Higher Education Law and the Ministry of Education and Training's (MOET) quality assurance policies and guidelines from 2001 to 2008 The EQAF comprises ten standards and 61 criteria, initially established on November 1, 2007, and last revised in March.
The introduction of official Quality Standards for Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) marks a significant advancement in educational administration, reflecting a strong commitment to delivering high-quality higher education These standards align closely with regional and international quality assurance benchmarks, despite facing criticism regarding their effectiveness The External Quality Assurance (EQA) system is designed to enhance the Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) system, focusing on accountability and quality enhancement while also informing the public about the quality of HEIs and their programs.
Between 2012 and 2015, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) initiated a decentralization effort by establishing four independent accrediting centers, separate from the General Department of Education and Training (GDETA), to oversee the accreditation of higher education, technical, and vocational institutions (NAV, 2012) However, the independence of these centers is questionable, particularly in light of the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA)'s definition of autonomy for external quality assurance (EQA) agencies (2015) A significant challenge these centers face is the shortage of quality assurance (QA) experts, both quantitatively and qualitatively, leading to an overwhelming workload as they must manage the accreditation of over 400 higher education institutions (HEIs) and numerous vocational programs with limited staff (H C Nguyen, Ta, & Nguyen, 2017) Additionally, Decree 73/2012/ND-CP mandates that all foreign-funded educational organizations and joint training programs must be accredited by recognized Vietnamese or international accreditation bodies (GOV, 2012).
The increasing demand for external quality assurance (EQA) has raised concerns regarding its effectiveness, highlighting the need for better-trained assessors and improved management (Niedermeier & Pohlenz, 2016) To address these challenges, the establishment of additional accreditation agencies is anticipated, aimed at enhancing the quality of national education (MOET, 2012) through public accreditation initiatives.
From 2011 to 2015, and with the involvement of private accreditation agencies from 2016 to 2020, higher education has significantly strengthened its commitment to delivering high-quality education This has been achieved through a robust legal framework and a comprehensive quality assurance system, paving the way for a consistent pursuit of educational excellence.
Vietnamese higher education is increasingly aware of the importance of fostering regional and international collaboration at both national and institutional levels Currently, the country boasts two full members and three associate members of the International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE).
Institutional response
Internal quality assurance (IQA)
Following the 2005 revision of the Education Law, nearly all higher education institutions (HEIs) established Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) units (Niedermeier & Pohlenz, 2016) Notably, some universities initiated the creation of their IQA units early in this movement, such as the Institute for Education Quality Assurance at Vietnam National University, Hanoi, founded in 1995, and the Centre for Educational Testing and Quality Assessment at Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, established in 1999, prior to the introduction of GDETA.
2003 These pioneers have been keenly performing several IQA activities
In addition to preparing self-evaluation reports aligned with MOET standards, leading universities aiming for integration into the Southeast Asian region and seeking international recognition are encouraged to pursue accreditation or assessment from international accreditation agencies.
A 2012 survey conducted by the Higher Education Project No.2 revealed that among 156 QA units, many lacked clarity in their missions, purposes, and visions While some units primarily handle institutional self-evaluation, others concentrate on testing and assessment.
Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) units face significant challenges in capacity building due to a lack of experience and knowledge in quality assurance among staff and managers from non-QA disciplines Comprehensive training is essential at all levels, from leadership to staff, to address these deficiencies Additionally, IQA units require effective information management systems and performance indicators to enhance their operations The introduction of a national ranking system for higher education institutions by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) further intensifies the pressures on these institutions, necessitating urgent improvements in their quality assurance practices.
Institutional culture
This study will explore various issues related to institutional culture, as identified in previous research Key problems associated with this concept will be examined in detail.
The new policy settings seem to inadequately enhance academics' authority and accountability (St George, 2011) Public Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) have a diverse academic staff drawn from various educational backgrounds, including Vietnam, Eastern and Western Europe, Australia, and the USA This diversity creates an institutional culture rich in differing values, philosophies, expectations, and viewpoints This phenomenon aligns with Hofstede et al.’s (2010) study, which highlights how individuals within a social group develop distinct identities that set them apart from others, a topic that will be explored further in the next chapter.
Academic freedom is a core value in higher education, often resistant to external interference However, this resistance can hinder the development of a quality culture within higher education institutions (HEIs) Additionally, low salaries compel teachers to take on excessive teaching hours or additional jobs, contributing to increased stress among academics and support staff, particularly at advanced levels.
37 are unofficially allowed to work for different employers simultaneously, they cannot have enough time and energy to ensure the teaching quality as a matter of course (McCornac,
In the hierarchical structure of educational institutions, administrative staff often hold more power than academic faculty due to the "ask-give" policy These non-academic officials are crucial in ensuring compliance with regulations set by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and other relevant ministries, which encompass areas such as human resources, finance, investment, expenditures, enrollment, curriculum, teaching methods, and assessment Consequently, it is not uncommon for the head of an administrative department to wield greater influence over decision-making than a dean of a large faculty (Nguyen, 2011).
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) have gained more autonomy than in the past; however, they still largely adhere to the directives of the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and the government, often neglecting the unique needs of the universities themselves This centralization in management practices may lead to a disengagement of teaching staff from Quality Management (QM), as universities are intended to empower rather than constrain individuals (Phan & Coates, 2016) Consequently, this scenario highlights significant challenges related to institutional culture within HEIs.
Institutional quality culture
In recent decades, the concept of "quality culture" (QC) has gained traction in Vietnamese higher education, yet its recognition varies across institutions In Vietnam, QC is closely linked to quality assurance (QA), necessitating active involvement from leaders and participation from faculty and students alike Effective QA practices are essential for fostering institutional QC, which is vital for implementing a robust internal quality assurance (IQA) system In 2011, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, pioneered a set of criteria for developing institutional QC, prompting many higher education leaders to acknowledge its significance and support its advancement.
Despite some universities making progress in quality control (QC) awareness, many still face significant challenges in its implementation The development of QC remains slow due to varying perceptions of educational quality, limited understanding of quality requirements, and insufficient measurement tools Furthermore, Niedermeier and Pohlenz (2016) highlight that a lack of awareness, commitment, and capacity among higher education institution leaders and quality assurance specialists has significantly hindered progress in this area.
Professional development in Quality Assurance (QA) has become a significant focus, with staff participating in training courses and seminars to facilitate the self-assessment process The Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has actively involved international experts from countries like Australia, Indonesia, the Netherlands, and the United States to enhance QA programs These initiatives aim to elevate the quality control awareness among managerial staff, lecturers, and institutional leaders, ultimately fostering a strong institutional quality control framework Overall, the movement towards quality improvement in Vietnam's higher education is gaining momentum.
Quality accreditation and quality assurance (QA) are fundamental to Vietnam's higher education quality management system Accreditation activities are designed to foster quality improvement and enhance the QA processes within higher education institutions (HEIs) in Vietnam These initiatives by the government and HEIs aim to integrate these institutions into the broader framework of quality assurance.
Quality management in Vietnamese higher education institutions
In today's Vietnamese universities, implementing quality management (QM) is crucial for driving innovation and improving institutional quality, thereby earning societal trust While QM is commonly perceived as a tool for control and management, it also plays a vital role in guiding collaborative efforts towards achieving these goals.
39 all leaders and staff toward stakeholder focus and satisfaction by continually improving activities which eventually positively influence the institutional quality assurance and enhancement positively
In October 2009, Report 760/BC-BGDDT highlighted institutional weaknesses in leadership and called for enhanced management capacity within the education sector Following this, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) adopted a resolution in January 2010 aimed at reforming higher education management from 2010 to 2013, emphasizing the critical link between management practices and educational quality Subsequently, in February 2010, directive 296/2010/CT-TTg mandated MOET to revamp university education management, granting higher education institutions more autonomy while ensuring accountability This marked the first official acknowledgment by the Prime Minister that ineffective quality management was detrimental to the national higher education system.
At the Opening Ceremony for the 2014-2015 school year at Vietnam National University-Hanoi on September 15, 2014, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung outlined five key responsibilities for higher education, emphasizing the need for innovation in quality management (QM) This reflects a strong commitment from authorities to pursue institutional QM reform, highlighting the necessity of transitioning from a centralized, hierarchical management system to a quality enhancement framework based on measurable standards.
Institutional leaders and managers often have a background in small, subsidized, mono-disciplinary university models, a legacy of the Soviet higher education system prior to the 1990s This has resulted in a significant knowledge gap regarding the management and governance of large, multi-disciplinary institutions and contemporary university governance models Following the 1990s, there has been a trend towards integrating various specialized universities into larger, comprehensive higher education institutions.
40 in response to the trend of integration and internationalisation and rising expectations regarding the quality of HEI services, QM tasks are considered vital
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) have engaged in discussions about quality management using specific frameworks and criteria However, a consensus on a unified framework has yet to be achieved Scholars at various conferences emphasize the importance of adopting a defined framework for effective quality management in higher education.
QM, especially those from business and industry (Nguyen, 2012; D P Nguyen & Nguyen,
2013) Some suggest the application of Balanced Scorecard, Enterprise Resource Planning, Total Quality Management, International Organization for Standardization, Conceive– Design–Implement–Operate (H Q Nguyen, 2010; T K A Nguyen, 2010; Tran & Nguyen,
In recent years, various quality management frameworks, such as those from the European Foundation for Quality Management and Higher Education Quality Management, have been adopted by universities However, concerns have arisen regarding the compatibility of these models with the socio-cultural contexts of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) This raises important discussions about how values, beliefs, and particularly the unique characteristics of Vietnamese culture influence the effectiveness of these frameworks, as will be explored in Section 3.3.