Enhancing the mechanical engineering program of thai nguyen university through redesigned learning outcomes

Số hóa bởi Trung tâm Học liệu – ĐHTN http://www.lrc.tnu.edu.vnLIST OF TABLES 1 Weighted Mean Distribution of the LO Topics in Terms of the Importance of the Disciplinary Knowledge and

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Số hóa bởi Trung tâm Học liệu – ĐHTN http://www.lrc.tnu.edu.vn

REDESIGNED LEARNING OUTCOMES

_

A DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School Southern Luzon State University, Lucban, Quezon, Philippines

in Collaboration with Thai Nguyen University, Socialist Republic of Vietnam

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October 2014

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author would like to express her gratitude to the following persons who had great contribution to the preparation and accomplishment of this research

Sincerest and profound gratitude and appreciation are extended to all the persons who in their own special ways have made this thesis a reality The author is most grateful to:

Dr Cecilia N Gascon, President of Southern Luzon State University,

Republic of the Philippines, for her invaluable contribution in the establishment

of the Master of Arts in Educational Management program in Thai Nguyen University;

Prof Dr Dang Kim Vui, President of Thai Nguyen University, the

Socialist Republic of Vietnam for his incomparable contribution and support to the Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Management program under the auspices of the Southern Luzon State University, Republic of the Philippines;

Dr Walberto A Macaraan, Vice-President for Academic Affairs, for his

support to the tie-up program between SLSU and TNU;

The Panel of Examiners, for their invaluable comments, suggestions and recommendations to enhance the thesis manuscript of the author of this study;

Dr Melchor Milo O Placino, his adviser, for his dedication, enduring

patience and concern, guidance, sincere hopes and encouragement for the

researcher to finish the manuscript;

Dr Apolonia Espinosa, professor of advanced statistics for her

patience and support;

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To the Staff of the Learning Resource Center of Thai Nguyen University, for allowing the researcher to utilize valuable sources of books and

The respondents of the study, for their active involvement, without

their cooperation the result of this dissertation may not be possible;

His loving classmates and colleagues, for endless support and

friendship which inspires the researcher to do his best in finishing the study;

His wife – Dinh Thi Kim Phuong, the only person with a special space

in his heart, for being his inspiration;

His parents and siblings, for their encouragement, financial, moral and

spiritual supports and for continuously believing that he can finish the task to the best of his abilities

PVH

DEDICATION

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With pride and honor,

this piece of work is lovingly dedicated

to my beloved parents, wife and children

PVH

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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PAGE

TITLE PAGE ……… i

APPROVAL SHEET ……… ii

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY ……… iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ……… iv

DEDICATION ……… vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ……… vii

LIST OF TABLES ……… ix

LIST OF FIGURES……… xii

LIST OF APPENDICES ……… xiii

ABSTRACT ……… xiv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ……… 1

Background of the Study ……… 4

Objectives of the Study ……… 8

Significance of the Study ……… 9

Scope and Limitation of the Study ……… 10

Definition of Terms ……… 11

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ……….……… 15

Learning Outcomes ……… 15

Types of Learning Outcomes ……… 18

Learning Outcomes and Outcomes-Based Approaches 23

The Role of Learning Outcomes in Program Design and Improvement ……… 25

Learning Outcomes and Learning Objectives ……… 29

Formulation of Learning Outcomes ……… 30

Conceptual Framework ……… ….……… …… 33

Research Paradigm ……… ….……… 42

III METHODOLOGY ……… 45

Locale of the Study ……….……… 45

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Research Design ……….……… 45

Population and Sampling ……….… ………… 45

Instrumentation ……… ………… …….… 46

Data Gathering Procedure ……… 48

Statistical Treatment …….……… 48

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ……….… 51

The importance of each learning outcome topic under the view of the four main stakeholders of the MEP …… 51

Evaluation of the current status of learning outcomes and the expected LOs of MEP ……… 66

The correlation among the important level of learning outcomes, current proficiency level of the students, the expected proficiency level that the students should achieve ……… 103

The Process for formulating the redesigned learning outcomes for the MEP ……… 104

V SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary ……….……….… 122

Conclusions ……….… 125

Recommendations ……… …… 127

REFERENCES ………

129 APPENDICES ………

132 CURRICULUM VITAE ………

160

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LIST OF TABLES

1 Weighted Mean Distribution of the LO Topics in Terms of the

Importance of the Disciplinary Knowledge and Reasoning as

Importance of Personal and Professional Skills and

Attributes and the Interpersonal skills Topics as viewed by

Importance of Skills in Applying Knowledge to Benefit

Society as viewed by the Students ……… 54

Importance of the Disciplinary Knowledge and Reasoning

Under the View of the Alumni ……… 55

Attributes Topics as viewed by the Alumni ……… 56

Attributes and Interpersonal Skills Topics as viewed by

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Attributes Topics as viewed by Employers ……… 64

Importance of the Interpersonal Skills: Teamwork and

Communication - Applying Knowledge to Benefit Society

Topics Under the View of the Employers ……… 65

13 The Current and Expected Proficiency Level of Designing as

16 Results on Analytical Reasoning and Problem Solving …… 74

17 Results on System Thinking and Attitudes, Thoughts and

18 Results on Ethics, Equity and Other Responsibilities ……… 77

19 Results on External, Societal and Environmental Context … 79

20 Results on Conceiving, Systems Engineering and

22 Results of Survey on Knowledge of Underlying Mathematics

23 Results on Analytical Reasoning and Problem Solving …… 86

24 Results on Attitudes, Thoughts and Learning ……… 87

25 Results on Interpersonal Skills: Teamwork and

26 Result on External, Societal and Environmental Context … 90

27 Results on Enterprise and Business Context ……… 91

28 Results on Conceiving, Systems Engineering and

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LIST OF FIGURE

1 The Relationship Between Occupational Standards and

2 Learning Outcomes in the Development of Program ……… 27

3 Framework for Understanding Educational Quality ……… 35

4 Building Blocks of Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes

Necessary to Conceive, Design, Implement, and Operate

Systems in the Enterprise and Societal Context (CDIO) …… 41

5 The Schematic Presentation of the Study to Develop the

Learning Outcomes which Meet the Requirements of the

Society and International Integration ……… 43

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LIST OF APPENDICES

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ABSTRACT

Title of Research : ENHANCING THE MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING PROGRAM OF THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY THROUGH REDESIGNED

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Degree Conferred : DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATIONAL

MANAGEMENT Name and Address

of Institution

: Southern Luzon State University Lucban, Quezon, Philippines and Thai Nguyen University, Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Adviser : Dr Melchor Melo O Placino

Formulation of the learning outcomes which meet the requirements of the society plays an important role in order to improve the quality of the program This study aimed to redesign the learning outcomes of the Mechanical Engineering Program at Thai Nguyen University of Engineering using the survey results from the main stakeholders (employer, alumni, teacher and student) of the program The results were discussed by educational experts, institutional managers and teaching staff The study results indicated that the importance of learning outcome topics of the Mechanical Engineering Program under the view of the four main stakeholders of the MEP was almost the same They shared their interest in those topics and most of them needed to be in the redesigned learning outcomes with an average rating of 2.1918 (level 3 scale) The current status of learning outcomes did not meet the expectation of the graduating students The research results of the current status of the learning

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outcomes and the expected ones are as follows: Disciplinary Knowledge and Reasoning (2.48 and 3.18), Personal and Professional Skills and Attributes (2.23 and 3.04), Interpersonal Skills: Teamwork and Communication (2.19 and 3.16) and Applying Knowledge to Benefit Society (1.99 and 2.92) The research showed that according to the faculty, the current status of learning outcomes did not meet with their expectation The research results of the current status

of the learning outcomes and the expected ones regarding topics are as follows

in pair: Disciplinary Knowledge and Reasoning (2.29 and 3.20), Personal and Professional Skills and Attributes (2.16 and 3.35), Interpersonal Skills: Teamwork and Communication (2.27 and 3.53) and Applying Knowledge to Benefit Society (2.01 and 3.21) The results presented that the current status

of learning outcomes did not meet the expectation of the alumni The current status of the learning outcomes are as follows: Disciplinary Knowledge and Reasoning (2.59), Personal and Professional Skills and Attributes (2.55), Interpersonal Skills: Teamwork and Communication (2.48) and Applying Knowledge to Benefit Society (2.42), while the expected level of proficiency of those topics are 3.50, 3.60, 3.75 and 3.48, respectively Moreover, the dissertation identified the current status of learning outcomes did not meet the expectation of the employers With regard to Disciplinary Knowledge and Reasoning, the current proficient level was 2.26, while the expected level of proficiency of the topic was 3.22 Personal and Professional Skills and Attributes were 1.93 and 2.97, respectively The employers also rated the current proficient level of Interpersonal Skills: Teamwork and Communication topics at 1.81 and expectation level at 3.29 Learning outcomes related to Applying Knowledge to Benefit Society got 1.18 point with the current 1.72 and

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expected level of proficiency of 2.90 The learning outcomes of the Mechanical Engineering Program were rewritten with reference to the comments and contribution of its main stakeholders

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Chapter I INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the scale of development of training has increased

significantly in Vietnam By the end of the first semester of school year (2010-2011), there were 149 higher education institutions (HEIs) with 1,358,861 college students and 45,961 teachers Providing

accountability data and consumer information on the quality of teaching and learning has been increasing pressures on the HEIs

The Vietnamese Government and the Ministry of Education and Training have stated the concern about the learning outcomes of HEIs to ensure the quality of training and accountability towards the Government

and the society In 2008, at a national conference on the quality of higher

education which was held in Ho Chi Minh City on January, 8th 2008, the Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Education and Training Nguyen Thien Nhan appealed to the universities & colleges to improve the quality of instruction: that by December, 2008 all universities, colleges must develop their training standards, conduct training to achieve the learning outcomes (LOs) set, inform students about their level of competence, know how to achieve the learning outcomes, and what skills they will have after completing the courses, etc.”

Minister Nguyen Thien Nhan confirmed that the transition from training based on HEIs’ availability to training which met the requirements

of the society was the most important, fundamental and urgent change in

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the current period The Minister cited nine criteria to ensure quality standards in training to meet social needs, including: (1) skills, competences of graduates; (2) the input; (3) training programs (4) faculty, staff management; (5) teaching and assessing learning outcomes of students; (6) condition of facilities, technique (7) finance; (8) decentralized management mechanism; and (9) accreditation, training quality evaluation

Article 9, Vietnamese Education Law, 2005 on Education

development states that “Education development is the first national priority with a view to improve people’s knowledge, train manpower, and foster talents.” Education development must be linked to the

requirements of socio-economic development, to the

scientific-technological advances, and to the consolidation of national defense and security; must implement standardization, modernization, and

socialization; must ensure the balance in terms of qualifications,

professional and regional structure; must expand scale on the basis of quality and efficiency assurance; and must link education with

employment”

Criteria 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 4.7 of the Vietnamese set of accreditation

standards for higher education institutions (issued together with

Decision No 65/2007/QD-BGDDT November 1, 2007) also explicitly highlight the educational program that must be developed and adjusted based on the consultancy of the employers , alumni and other

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stakeholders of the program and "the universities must have plans to evaluate the quality of training after graduation and to adjust training to meet the requirements of the society"

The Vietnam Government also issued official document on the “Reform

of Education Management from 2010 – 2012” which highlighted that training to meet social needs is an important task and must foster

training quality to meet the requirements of the society at national level

as well as at local level and at each training institution

Thai Nguyen University has been aware of the importance of training to meet social needs and international integration Since 2008, the

University has directed its members in making plans to provide quality training The University has organized two training courses on

formulating learning outcomes for more than 200 leaders of its member colleges and units However, in the implementation process, the

consultation of the employers and alumni as well as other stakeholders has not been emphasized and the learning outcomes of some programs were either too high to achieve and or too low that do not meet the requirements of the present socio-economic development and some are too general which do not provide basis for the development of the

program It is the reason why this study should be conducted in Thai Nguyen University

Background of the Study

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The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (TFME) is one of the largest and oldest departments of the Thai Nguyen University of Technology It is responsible for the training of highly qualified technicians

to meet the needs of industrialization and modernization of the country and the need to integrate with the world In addition, the faculty organizes and implements scientific research, applying the results in production for engineering as well as other fields

The faculty is divided into five departments, including Departments

of Manufacturing Plant, the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Materials Technology department, and the departments of Mechatronics and Automotive Technology Each department Faculty is responsible for

a specialized field of training

TFME has an enthusiastic teaching team Currently, the department has nearly 100 staff and teachers involved in teaching Over 60% members of the faculty have Masters and Doctorate degree, in which 30% are core teachers and 40% are Associate Professor and Ph.D holders TMFE is currently teaching 86 classes with over 5, 700 full-time and part-time students Among these, there are more than 4, 400 full-time students with 54 classes

Over 38 years of construction and development, the Faculty has trained more than 15,000 masters, engineers, college degree, and hundreds of technicians In terms of jobs and work places, from North to

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South, from the main cities to the mountainous areas, remote islands, from lecture halls of universities to companies, state enterprises or private, TMFE graduates can be found

Not only the quantity, but the quality of the Faculty’s training was approved and highly appreciated Moreover, these technical staffs are trained to maximize the knowledge learned in order to contribute effectively to national construction and defense Many alumni of the faculty have now become leaders and held important positions in the society

The MEP was designed and formulated based on the regulation of the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training The contents of the program were originally designed by the experienced senior lecturers of the University The contents of the program have been adjusted

recently due to the Vietnamese policy to import the programs of

developed countries In fact, the MEP has imported some of the

content of the Mechanical engineering program of the University of Buffalo, USA It is the reason why the program has many updated

knowledge of engineering with a view to provide the students with the wide and fundamental engineering knowledge, the updated knowledge

of design including methods, design procedure and design tools

However, after completing two 5-year-course training, the program has shown some problems that need resolutions

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First, many graduates have to attend further training of 4-6 months before finding a job according to the results of the survey conducted by the university The graduates lack the necessary skills such as team work and communication, and proper practices in order to work in a new environment for it takes a lot of time for them to be familiar with the new conditions

Second, with regard to the content of the program, the logistic among subjects is not proper; some can be cut down or cut off without affecting other subjects that do not directly provide expected outcomes,

knowledge and skills

Third, timing and program specifications of some modules are not

suitable; especially those that require students’ skills

These problems could be defined as a wrong way of forming a program for the MEP, since they based it on the experience of a group of people and they chose what to teach based on their emotions The learning outcomes of the MEP were the same as that of the Mechanical Material and other program which are as follows:

The MEP would provide the students with: Political qualities (understanding and responsibilities, observance of policy guidelines,

policies and laws of the Party, State and in implementing rights and obligations of citizens and workers); Humanistic qualities (Honest, energetic, confident, responsible and conscious community service,

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harmony with market demand); Ability to think, confront new and known risks; Strong suitable foundation of basic sciences like mathematics, chemistry, physics, philosophy, etc and core knowledge based on mechanical engineering and other related fields; specialized knowledge

in the design, fabrication machine; ability to solve engineering problems creatively through the use of methods and techniques, synthesis, distribution analysis, calculation, design and manufacture; and knowledge and understanding of contemporary issues

The MEP would provide the students with Skills including: Skills to

use information technology ( Proficiency in using computational software, design, simulation and programming capabilities production control system, office software applications, internet and email; Communication skills (ability to form logical arguments and persuasion, and show capable technical solutions or presentations with graphics, models and multimedia materials and present problem logically, briefly and easy to

understand; Teamwork ( ability to organize work groups effectively, play

a role as leader or member in the same group or multi-disciplinary field

of international working environment; Foreign Languages (ability to read, translate technical documents in English, and have basic communication skills in English)

It can be seen from the current learning outcomes that most of the professional outcomes are related to knowledge, however, what the

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society needs from an engineer is not their knowledge but also their competency and practicing skills

Using the modern theory in developing a program, the Faculty should start from the learning outcomes that are designed based on the demand of the society, employers, alumni and other stakeholders of the program It’s the reason why the learning outcomes of the MEP should

be redesigned to prepare for the whole improvement of the MEP

Objectives of the Study

This study aimed to enhance the mechanical engineering program of Thai Nguyen University through a redesigned learning outcome for school year 2013-2014 Specifically, it answered the following

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2 Evaluate the current level of proficiency of the MEP graduated students regarding each learning outcome topics and the expected level of proficiency of each LO topics of MEP in terms of:

2.1 Alumni

2.2 Faculty

2.3 Graduating students

2.4 Employers

3 Redesign the learning outcomes for the MEP

Significance of the Study

This study attempted to develop the learning outcomes for Mechanical and Engineering Program which meet the requirements of the society and the international integration The study would be beneficial to the following:

Administrators It is hoped that the study will clarify the state of the

arts of learning outcomes and what the stakeholders of the program expect from the graduate of the program The findings of the research will help to reform the training program towards the outcome-based education in regional higher education institutions

Teachers/Professors The outcome of this study will be very beneficial

to teachers and professors since they will be provided with a clearer

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picture of what other stakeholders expect them to provide, and also give them guidelines to organize their lessons to meet the demands of the society and the current trend of international integration

Students The students are the main stakeholder of the training

process, so with the results of this study, students will have a better choice on the learning strategy to get the best outcome which include knowledge, skills and attitude

Future researchers This study could provide references for future

proponents who wish to venture in a study similar to the nature of this research

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study was implemented in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering - College of Engineering - Thai Nguyen University with the following

respondents: 250 students who are in the senior year and graduating in June, 2013; 50 faculty who are teaching in the program; 100

enterprises’ representatives; and 100 alumni of the MEP

Learning outcomes are classified into knowledge outcomes, skills

outcomes and attitude outcomes, divided into four groups: (1)

Disciplinary Knowledge and Reasoning (2) Personal and Professional Skills and Attributes (3) Interpersonal Skills: Teamwork and

Communication, and (4) Applying Knowledge to Benefit Society

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To define the outcomes for the program, survey on the different

stakeholders of the MEP was carried out Representatives of the

enterprises and alumni of the MEP, faculty and students participated in the survey

Development of the learning outcomes was limited to the use of

questionnaires, expert discussion and consultancy Checklists were also developed for the purpose of the study

The time frame for the study was from February 2013 to July 2013

Definition of Terms

For clarity and better understanding of the study, the following

terminologies are defined both conceptually and operationally

Cognitive outcomes include domain-specific knowledge, reasoning

and problem-solving skills

Communication is composed of the skills necessary to devise a

communication strategy and structure, and those necessary to use the four common media: written, oral, graphical, and

electronic modules/interpersonal-skills-teamwork-communication)

(http://www.cdio.org/participate/instructor-resource-Disciplinary knowledge and reasoning includes knowledge of basic

sciences and core engineering fundamental knowledge and professional engineering knowledge

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Experimental Inquiry is a special kind of problem solving that is

governed by rules of process and evidence, a process of generating and testing hypotheses for the purpose of understanding some physical or psychological phenomenon (http://schoolnet.org.za/teach10/resources/dep/higher_thinking/us ing_knowledge/experimental_inquiry.htm)

Interpersonal skills are skills used by a person to properly interact with

others In the business domain, the term generally refers to an employee's ability to get along with others while getting the job done Interpersonal skills include everything from communication and listening skills to attitude and deportment (http://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/interpersonal-skills.asp)

Learning outcomes describe what a learner is expected to know, to

understand and be able to demonstrate after successful completion of a process of learning They are statements of concrete and verifiable signs that witness/ certify how the planned competences, including the required levels of knowledge are being developed or acquired

(https://www.ucviden.dk/portal/files/9576063/Tuning_G_Formulati ng_ Degree_PR4.pdf)

Non-cognitive outcomes consist of suggestions and supports for the

completion of study beliefs, values and attitude

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Personal Skills and Attitudes include the general character traits of

initiative and perseverance, the more generic modes of thought of creative and critical thinking, and the skills of personal inventory (knowing one’s strengths and weaknesses), curiosity and lifelong learning, and time management (EF Crawley - 2001, The CDIO Syllabus)

Professional Attributes are characteristics of an engineer including

professional integrity and professional behavior to plan for one’s

career and to stay current in our dynamic world of engineering (http://www.cdio.org/participate/instructor-resource-

materials/personal-and-professional-skills-attributes)

Redesigned learning outcomes are learning outcomes that are

designed based on the previous one with the consultancy of ideas from employers, alumni, teachers and students and administrators

Requirements of the society include the requirement of people (faculty,

students), employers, alumni and government

Teamwork is comprised of forming, operating, growing, and leading a

team, along with some skills specific to technical teamwork

Thinking holistically involves perceiving a system through sensing its

large-scale patterns and reacting to them Holistic thinking is mostly applied in social situations which need sensitivity, intuition and tact

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents the literature and studies of the learning outcomes, the roles of the learning outcomes in developing the curriculum and the program, the quality in education, the engineering criteria of some organizations and how to formulate the learning outcomes of a program

The first part presents the educational program and some definitions of learning outcomes

“An educational program is a program written by the institution or ministry of education which determines the learning progress of each subject in

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_program,

Learning outcomes

Learning (whether in cognitive, affective, interpersonal or psychomotor domains) is said to involve a process of individual transformation Thus people actively construct their knowledge (Biggs and Moore, 1993)

Learning outcomes refer to the personal changes or benefits that follow as a result

of learning Such changes or benefits can be measured in terms of abilities or

achievements There have been a lot of definitions of learning outcomes “Learning outcomes are statements of what is expected that a student will be able to do as a result of a learning activity” (Jenkins and Unwin) Learning outcomes are explicit statements of what we want our students to know, understand or to be able to do as

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a result of completing our courses (University New South Wales, Australia) A view from the American Association of Law Libraries (2004) adds a normative element to the definition: “Learning outcomes are statements that specify what learners will know or be able to do as a result of a learning activity Outcomes are usually

expressed as knowledge, skills, or attitudes Learning outcomes should flow from a needs assessment The needs assessment should determine the gap between an existing condition and a desired condition Learning outcomes are statements that describe a desired condition—that is, the knowledge, skills, or attitudes required

to fulfill the need They represent the solution to the identified need or

issue Learning outcomes provide direction in the planning of a learning activity.” (Otter, 1992, p.i) defined learning outcomes as “what a learner knows or can do as

a result of learning.”

According to Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, learning outcomes are defined as to the domain specific knowledge; practical cognitive skills, technological cognitive and problem solving ability; types of job that learners can do after

graduation and other requirements for each level of training

It should be noted that outputs and outcomes have different meaning in the

education process While outputs can mean every product of the educational process such as the number of articles, works, classes or number of graduate (Allan, 1996), outcomes describe what the student actually achieves, as opposed to what the institution intends to teach Outcomes “are essentially what one ends up with,

intended or not, after some form of engagement” Eisner (1979, p.103) The UNESCO

definition identifies both outcomes and student learning outcomes although they do

not differ much:

Outcomes: Anticipated or achieved results of programs or the accomplishment of

institutional objectives, as demonstrated by a wide range of indicators (such as

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student knowledge, cognitive skills, and attitudes) Outcomes are direct results of the instructional program, planned in terms of student/learner growth in all areas An outcome must be distinguished from an objective, which is a sought-after result Generally, each outcome statement should describe one effect of the instructional program, and not accumulate several into one statement Also, the statements

should be clearly detailed and easily understandable by all teaching staff and

students in the given area or department

Student Learning Outcomes: Statements of what a learner is expected to know,

understand, and/or be able to demonstrate after the completion of a process of learning as well as the specific intellectual and practical skills gained and

demonstrated by the successful completion of a unit, course, or program Learning outcomes, together with assessment criteria, specify the minimum requirements for the award of credit, while grading is based on the attainment above or below the minimum requirements for the award of credit Learning outcomes are distinct from the aims of learning in that they are concerned with the achievements of the learner rather than with the overall intentions of the teacher (Vlãsceanu et al., 2004, pp 41–42)

In short, “learning outcomes describe what a learner is expected to know, understand and be able to demonstrate after successful completion of a process of learning They are statements of concrete and verifiable signs that witness/ certify how the planned competences, including the required levels of knowledge are being developed or acquired

Types of Learning Outcomes

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With regard to learning outcomes, different writers have different classifications of learning outcomes The most common classification is the two types of LO – they are cognitive outcomes and non-cognitive outcomes

Cognitive learning outcomes

According to Posner (1992), cognitive learning refers to the recall or recognition of knowledge and to the development of intellectual abilities and skills (Posner, 1992) Broadly defined, cognitive learning outcomes

“range from domain-specific knowledge to the most general of reasoning and problem-solving skills” (Shavelson and Huang, 2003, p.13)

The classifications of cognitive learning outcomes are various and many of which are from the Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (1956) The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills There are six major categories, which are listed in order, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex going beyond factual knowledge and comprehension to include academic skills like application, synthesis, analysis, and evaluation

For the purpose of the study, the learning outcomes was classified as the knowledge and skills outcomes since the distinction has been commonly accepted by the assessment literature

Knowledge outcomes

According to Bloom ( 1956), knowledge acquisition involves the “remembering, either

by recognition or recall, of ideas, materials or phenomena” Knowledge outcomes can be general content knowledge and domain-specific knowledge

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General content knowledge refers to the knowledge of a certain core curriculum

whose content is considered “essential learning” (Maeroff, 2006)

Domain-specific, or subject-specific, knowledge outcomes refer to acquired

knowledge in a particular field, such as biology or literature Pascarella and

Terenzini (2005) found that while studying at a HEI, undergraduate students make the greatest gains in those domains that are consistent with their major area of studies

Skills outcomes

Cognitive skills are based on complex processes of thinking, such as verbal

and quantitative reasoning, information processing, comprehension, analytic

operations, critical thinking, problem-solving and evaluation of new ideas There are some disagreements as to whether such thinking processes are generic (following general patterns) as opposed to being field-specific

Domain-specific skills are the thinking patterns used within a broad disciplinary

domain, such as natural sciences or humanities They are stated in terms of methods of enquiry, ways of evaluating evidence, and patterns of procedure necessary to confront new contextual situations in specific fields of study They involve an understanding of how, why, and when certain knowledge applies

(Shavelson and Huang, 2003) Domain-specific skills are not entirely transferable throughout subject areas For example, the ability outcome “excellent writing” takes different forms and requires different skills in the various disciplines (AAC&U, 2004) Some argue that although academic skills are a general outcome of higher

education, they can hardly be tested independently of disciplinary subject matters

In line with this view, domain-specific skills may be assessed by providing students with new documentation taken from their domain of expertise, and asking them to

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assess the quality of the evidence and make use of it to write complex answers (AAC&U, 2004)

Non-cognitive outcomes

Non-cognitive development refers to changes in beliefs or the development of certain values (Ewell, 2005) Mission statements of HEIs often include non-cognitive elements, which show that their role goes beyond the acquisition of knowledge and skills Non-cognitive outcomes may be developed both through classroom

instruction and out-of-class activities that are organized by HEIs to supplement the curriculum Many attempts have been made to establish theoretical and empirical taxonomies of non-cognitive higher education outcomes Among the most

frequently assessed variables are outcomes related to psychosocial

development, attitudes and values

Psychosocial development includes aspects of self-development such as identity

development and self-esteem, as well as relational developments such as students’ relationships with people, institutions and conditions Relational outcomes include

interpersonal and intercultural skills, as well as autonomy and maturity Attitudes and values are closely interrelated and often confounded A distinction can be

made between the two, as attitudes are beliefs focused on a specific object, whereas values are generalized standards that transcend attitudes (Rokeach, in Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005) Attitudinal and value outcomes may include social responsibility, motivation for learning and understanding of diversity (Volkwein, 2003)

According to Astin (1984), learning outcomes are not simply the consequence of

an institution’s educational quality, but rather a function of students’ active

engagement with the learning opportunities that the HEI presents In line with this rationale, the National Survey for Student Engagement (USA), for example, aims to

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measure the extent to which HEIs actively encourage high levels of engagement

Otter (1992) emphasizes the difference between general competence, which is a

broad set of abilities that can be applied in a range of settings, and occupational competence, which is a narrower description of the abilities needed for employment

in a specific occupation Occupational competencies may also be referred to as

employability Preparing students for competence in the workplace is a major goal of

higher education (Bowen, 1977) HEIs have come under increasing pressures to prepare their students’ ability to meet the needs of industry, commerce and other service organizations (Seagraves et al, 1996) This includes the

development of skills that are valued in employment (Dearing, 1997)

However, the definition of learning outcomes in terms of occupational competence may raise several issues of concern Important dimensions of higher education, such as providing opportunities for in-depth study and helping students to

develop their potential, may be undervalued if HEIs focus solely on

occupational competencies (Otter, 1992; Melton, 1996) Also, it is not always possible to define clear occupational objectives for each subject domain, because graduates may take up employment in a wide range of occupations (Melton, 1996) For some subjects it may not be feasible to define clearly related occupational roles Finally, employment outcomes statements tend to focus on immediate employment needs, whereas students may be more interested in developing

intellectual skills that would enable them for lifelong and unpredictable future labour markets, rather than just for an initial job (Melton, 1996; AAC&U, 2004)

Outcomes of higher education are not limited to learning outcomes Students can benefit from their HEI experience in many different ways, such as better social status, higher employment rates, civic engagement, opportunities to pursue further studies, or simply leading a more fulfilled life (Ewell, 2005) While such outcomes

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are related to learning, they should not be confused with the actual mastery of knowledge, abilities, and skills that result from students’ engagement in HEI learning experiences (Ewell, 2005) Such long-term social and economic benefits of the HEI experience can serve as secondary proxies for learning outcomes, but they are not direct outcomes of learning

Learning Outcomes and Outcome-Based Approaches

The term learning outcomes has its origins in outcomes-based education, a model

of educational structuring that involves the clear and explicit identification, statement and assessment of student learning (Spady, 1988; Allan, 1996; Andrich, 2002; Adam, 2004) Outcomes-based education systems organize curricula around

explicit and detailed student outcome statements Such statements describe what the learner is expected to know, understand and/or be able to demonstrate at the end of a period of learning (Adam, 2004) Outcomes-based approaches are most frequently used in secondary schooling (Ewell, 2005) In higher education,

outcomes-based approaches were first introduced in the USA, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, but more recently also in other OECD countries (Adam, 2004)

Learning outcomes and outcome-based approaches’ have a strong impact on

curriculum design, teaching, learning and assessment, as well as quality assurance They constitute an important part of modern approaches to higher education and the reconsideration of such vital questions as to what, who, how, where and when we teach and assess The very nature and role of education is being questioned, now more than ever before, and learning outcomes are important tools in clarifying the results of learning for the student, citizen, employer and educator (Adam, 2004)

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The Bologna Seminar on Recognition Issues in the Bologna Process held in Lisbon

in April 2002 stated that: ‘Learning outcomes are important for recognition, since the basis for recognition procedures is in the process of shifting from quantitative criteria such as the length and type of course studied, to the outcomes reached and

competencies obtained during these studies The principle question asked of the student or the graduate will therefore no longer be “what did you do to obtain your degree?” but rather “what can you do now that you have obtained your degree?” This approach is of more relevance to the labor market and is certainly more flexible when taking into account issues of lifelong learning, non-traditional learning, and other forms of non-formal educational experiences.’

More emphasis is put on the link between education and the world of work A new term is introduced; the qualification standard, stressing the importance that

vocational education and training policy should lead to the labor market Qualification standards are either job based, occupational, vocational or general, depending on the degree that they are adapted to the specific demands of employers or to the requirements of the education system in general The key word is development of competence and the manual tries to explain what competence is The curriculum design process is analyzed, starting from the definition of standards, and finishing with the evaluation of the curriculum ( Figure 1 )

Learning outcomes are not just an isolated tool at the level of curriculum design but also represent an approach that plays a significant role in a much wider context that includes: the integration of academic and vocational education and training (VET), the accreditation of prior experiential learning, the development of lifelong learning qualifications frameworks and the development of credit transfer and accumulation systems They are the foundation stone of the new architecture of educational

reform (Mansfield and Hermann Schmidt, 2001)

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