Semantics chapter 3 PG-DIMENSIONS OF WORD MEANING

DIMENSIONS OF WORD MEANING NAMING Ferdinand de Saussure theorizes that a “sign” has two parts: signifier and signified. The signifier is the form that the sign will take, whether it is a sound or image and the signified is the meaning that is conveyed. The word is the signifier which stands for an object. Some things are easy to name but there are imaginary and abstract things such as: love, hate, anger, etc which are not easy to name. We think of names of people or places, which are proper names. Proper names are definite. DENOTATION The denotation of a word is its ‘meaning’ in the narrowest logical and semantic sense: what a word denotes is what it refers to. E.g. the denotation of the word winter corresponds to the season between autumn and spring (no matter whether it is cold or snowing).

CHAPTER 3 DIMENSIONS OF WORD MEANING

We  think  of  names  of  people  or  places,  which  are  proper  names. Proper names are definite

- The denotation of a word is its ‘meaning’ in the narrowest logical and 

semantic sense: what a word denotes is what it refers to.

E.g.  the  denotation  of  the  word  winter  corresponds  to  the  season 

between autumn and spring (no matter whether it is cold or snowing)

Denotation is the ability of a word to identify all those things or objects that are correctly covered by it

Denotation  of  a  word  or  expression  is    invariant  and  independent

Eg: My daughter  wants to be a doctor

(reference in my daughter, not in a doctor)

The  speaker  wants  to  indicate  a  particular  thing  in  a  particular situation, not things in general

Eg: 

A good student is a person who studies well.

There is no reference, or in other words, no referent

DENOTATION vs REFERENCE

Denotation is invariant and utterance-independent.

Reference is variable and utterance-dependent.

SENSE and REFERENCE

SENSE and  REFERENCE are  two  aspects  of  denotation.  A  word’s  reference is  the  set  of  things  in  the  real  world  that  it  can  be  used  to 

refer to; a word’s sense is the property or characteristic it describes.

Reference

Tree (lexical item)  has reference 

SENSE and REFERENCE

a Sue is looking for a dog; I hope she finds it. Its name is Fido.

b. Sue is looking for a dog; I hope she finds one She hasn’t decided yet whether she

wants a retriever or a spaniel.

In (a), the word dog is being used for its reference; a dog in this sentence refers to 

a  particular  actual  dog.  In  (b),  dog is  being  used  for  its  sense;  a dog means 

‘anything that has the property of doghood’ rather than any specific dog.

SENSE and REFERENCE

- The sense of a word is its meaning in terms of the rest of the language. 

-  Its  reference  is  the  entity  or  experience  in  the  non-linguistic  world  to  which  it 

relates in a particular utterance.

Compare: 

There is a tree in my garden.

I am thinking of planting a tree in my garden.

- The reference of an expression varies according to 

  (a) circumstances (time, place, etc.), in which the expression is used.

  (b) the topic of the conversation in which the expression is used.

The  present Prime Minister  has  variable reference  (1982,  1944)  ><  constant

reference  (the moon, The People’s Republic of China, Angola, Halley’s

Comet, etc.)

Denotations vs. connotation

– The belief systems of sub-groups.

– connotation for a particular person in the light of particular experience – connotation that develops within a text.

THE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT OF MEANING

THE CHANGE OF MEANING

- New meanings of the words appear

- Some old meanings drop out of the language or co-exist with the new ones

THE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT OF MEANING

Words change when either the denotation and connotation experiences some sort of change

Eg: silly once meant happy.

OE: husband  master of the house

CAUSES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

1 Extra linguistic causes:  connected  with  development  of  society, 

changes  in  social,  political,  economic,  cultural  life,  in  science  and technology

2. Linguistic causes: factors acting within language, connected with the 

system of language

CAUSES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

CAUSES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

2.3. Attraction of synonyms

One of the synonyms gets new meaning, the other synonyms get this new meaning too

Eg: 

catch means to understand and its synonyms (grasp, get) acquire this 

meaning too

CAUSES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

3. Psychological reasons (taboos, euphemisms)

Psychological reasons concern the avoidance of expressing explicitly problematic concepts such as death, sex…

Eg: restroom for toilet, 

African-American for coloured / black

NATURE OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

The meaning of a word or expression may change over time in two respects: denotation and connotation

1 Denotation: developing in 2 ways

- Extended (or generalized)

Eg: ready: prepared for a ride – prepared for anything

NATURE OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

NATURE OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

- Elevation of meaning:

Eg: Minister: a servant, an attendant – head of a state department.

TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING

A word is said to be used in a transferred meaning when

it is meant to refer simultaneously to the object or notion which it generally denotes and to another object or notion which is in some way related with the first one on the basis of similarity or association.

Transference from literal meaning to figurative meaning is expressed by the figures of speech.

The most popular figures of speech are: metaphor,

metonymy, hyperbole, litotes, irony and euphemisms.

Metaphor (an implicit comparison/ hidden

comparison): is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on similarity between two objects

Eg: John is a snake (dangerous)

Metaphor may be:

• Living: a word is used in unusual meaning:

She lent wings to his imagination (J

London)

Peace is our fortress.

• Faded: lost its freshness because of long use

and became habitual:

Her voice is sweet fruitful effort

He's an Othello golden youth

Metonymy:  can  be  defined  as  substitution  of  one  word  for  another 

with which it is associated

Eg: A kettle boils – the water in the kettle boils.

According  to  standard  tradition,  metonymy  is  defined  as  a  figure  in which  one  word  is  substituted  for  another  on  the  basis  of  some material, casual, or conceptual relation

- Names of parts of human body may be used as symbols: to have good

ears for music

- The concrete is used instead of abstract: from the cradle to the grave

- The  materials  are  used  for  the  things  made  of  the  materials:  glass,

silver…

- The name of the author is used for his works: Volt, Ampere…

- Part is used for the whole and vice versa: roof for house…

a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration

I beg a thousand pardons.

I haven't seen you for ages.

I'm dying of hunger

I'd give the world to see him

She's got a sea of troubles.

If I had a mountain of money, I would spend it all on you You have put the whole salt of the world into this soup!

  Its contextual meaning is contrary to the literal meaning for the sake of ridicule or sarcasm

He speaks English so well that nobody can understand.

What a nice mess !

It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.

Euphemisms:  use  a  milder  expression  for  something  unpleasant: 

restroom for WC, pass away for die…

THE END